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Civil society is one of the "hottest" concepts in all of the social sciences that touch on political life. Because so many countries have established more democratic regimes in recent years, there has been renewed interest in popular engagement in political life and everything else that relates to the way that political cultures or basic values and beliefs affect the way a state is governed. More recently, there has also been growing interest in how strengthening civil society can contribute to conflict resolution.
What is Civil Society?
Terrence Lyons talks about the tension between maintaining stability and addressing past injustice in post-conflict reconstruction. He also talks about ways to increase post-conflict stability through gradual democratization and the fostering of civil society.
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As with most popular academic concepts, there is no universally accepted definition of either civil society or the related notions of a civic culture and social capital. In one of the best brief attempts to sort through all the definitions, the British Library[1] included the following characteristics:
All observers agree that civil society refers to voluntary participation by average citizens and thus does not include behavior imposed or even coerced by the state.
- For some observers, it only includes political activity engaged in through nonprofit organizations such as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). At the other end of the spectrum, some observers include all forms of voluntary participation, whether in the public or private sector, political or apolitical.
- Civil society includes not just the individuals who participate, but the institutions they participate in--sometimes called "civil society organizations" or "CSOs." . Thus, civil society is strong to the degree that those CSOs are large and powerful.
- A civic culture is one in which most people think their government is legitimate and that their institutions (if not the leaders at any particular moment) can be trusted.
- Social capital is the human equivalent of economic capital. It is an intangible resource accumulated by civil society that can be expended when a society finds itself in crisis, as some argue occurred in the United States after September 11.
Why Is Civil Society Important?
Paul van Tongeren talks about organizing international conferences dedicated to discussing and disseminating lessons learned about the role of civil society in peacebuilding.
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Not all observers agree that civil society is important at all. Marxists, in particular, argue that civil society and, especially, a civic culture tend to frustrate change and progress toward a more just and equitable society.
However, there is growing agreement that civil society, civic culture, and social capital are all important for strengthening democracy and enabling conflict resolution. To be fair, the first academic discussions of civil society were naive, all but suggesting that any expansion of civic engagement was good for democracy. Anyone who has explored the rapid expansion of political involvement in such countries as the former Yugoslavia or Rwanda knows that any simplistic link between participation and democracy -- let alone conflict resolution -- is absurd.
Here, Robert Putnam's path-breaking (if controversial) book Bowling Alone[2] provided an important breakthrough in our thinking. Putnam recalled that when he went bowling as a child in the 1950s, people bowled in teams. In the late 1990s, people went bowling just as often as they did in Putnam's youth. However, they bowled with a couple of friends or family members, not in leagues. For Putnam, "bowling alone" is just one of dozens of indicators that Americans were less and less engaged in the rich social network of recreational and political organizations which his earlier research in Italy had suggested were vital for democracy.
Ray Shonholtz talks about the San Francisco Community Boards.
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But Putnam did not fall into the naive trap of arguing that all social involvement helped democracy. Indeed, he distinguishes between "bonding" and "bridging" social capital, and only the latter unambiguously supports democratization.
Bonding social capital develops when we get involved with people like ourselves. In my case, that would mean spending time with liberal, Jewish, middle-aged academics who like sports. If Putnam and scholars who have examined extremist nationalists are correct, bonding social capital can serve to reinforce our preexisting beliefs including our prejudices. To cite the most tragic example, there is little doubt that the authorities fanned the anti-Tutsi hatred of the Hutu who flocked to the Interahamwe in Rwanda in the early 1990s and made them more and more likely to physically take their anger out on the Tutsi.
In bridging social capital, I become involved with people who are less like me. That may be as simple as getting involved in my neighborhood association. While only middle class families can afford to live in our neighborhood, I'm the only academic, the only Jew, and one of only a handful of liberals. Even more importantly, when I get involved in trying to organize interfaith dialogues on divisive political issues, I spend time with people on the religious right, ultra-orthodox Jews, Muslims, Hindus, and atheists. In that work, I discover not only the issues we disagree about, but also areas where we do agree and can work together. We develop trust and toleration. Our community's social life literally becomes more civil.
This is important both for the building of democracy and for resolving conflict, because such values as trust and tolerance are important for both. No one has put this better than former President William Clinton in his 1994 speech to the United Nations General Assembly.
A coalition for democracy -- it's good for America. Democracies, after all, are more likely to be stable, less likely to wage war. They strengthen civil society. They can provide people with the economic opportunities to build their own homes, not to flee their borders. Our efforts to help build democracies will make us all more secure, more prosperous, and more successful as we try to make this era of terrific change our friend and not our enemy.[3]
What Individuals Can Do
William Ury says the third side is like an immune system against violence.
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Of all the topics covered in the Intractable Conflict Knowledge Base, helping develop civil society is one the areas in which individuals can have -- indeed must have -- a critical impact. As the 1960s civil rights leader, Eldridge Cleaver, used to put it, "if you aren't part of the solution, you are part of the problem." Academic systems theory also demonstrates that everyone's actions -- and their inactions -- affect everything and everyone else. Most importantly of all, civil society and bridging social capital cannot develop unless individuals get involved.
There are countless ways to do so which fall into two main categories which I will illustrate primarily with examples from the United States.
First, an individual can join an organization that promotes some aspect of civil society. One example of such an organization is Washington 's Operation Understand D.C.[4] It selects about a dozen African-American and Jewish high school students during the spring of their junior year. The students spend part of the spring learning about each other's culture, history, and values. During the summer, they go on trips to some of the landmarks in the U.S. civil rights movement, the Holocaust, and the Middle East. During the fall of their senior years, they do outreach work with other community groups. Most Operation Understand graduates continue with other projects on racial understanding once they get to college.
Second, individuals can act as individuals with no significant organizational commitment. Thus, one of the members of advisory board of the Lovettsville, Va., public library organized a showing of the films in the Search for Common Ground Film Festival followed by discussions over a six-week period in 2002. The organizer was concerned that little brought people in his rural community together, especially the people who send their children to public schools and the growing number of parents who home school. Thirty-five people came to all or most of the sessions, and through their discussions about Vietnam, the Middle East, South Africa, and Bosnia also built bonds that will strengthen community life in their small town.
Of course, not all projects trying to enhance civil society occur in the United States and not all are even explicitly political. The Mozaik preschool program brings Macedonian and Albanian children -- and their parents -- together. Oasis of Peace (Neve Shalom/Wahat al Salaam) does the same for Jewish and Arab teenagers in Israel. There have been drumming festivals, which brought Tutsi and Hutu together in Burundi, and other such bridging projects worldwide.
What States Can Do
On one level, it is hard for states to foster civil society. As most of the scholars have written on the subject point out, states by their nature are coercive bodies. Sometimes that coercion is relatively benign -- don't drive over the speed limit, don't drink alcohol before you turn 21, pay your taxes on time. Sometimes the coercion can be brutal as is the case in a totalitarian regime. But there always is a degree of force in the "state-society" relationship.
Still, some governments have tried to foster civil society and had some success in doing so. The British government, for instance, has created a variety of regional assemblies and "citizen juries" to try to bring more people into active participation in political life. The French government requires significant public input before any major new project that might affect the environment is approved. The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission received evidence from over 20,000 people, most of whom had never been involved in a democratic political process before. The Clinton administration promoted national dialogues on questions of race. Similarly, the Bush administration's controversial Faith Based Initiative is designed to support organizations which build social capital, though many of them admittedly do so more in a bonding than in a bridging manner. Finally, most state-based development agencies now fund the development of civil society as well as more traditional projects aimed at stimulating economic growth.
What Third Parties Can Do
This is really the province of the NGO community that are currently approaching the development of civil society in new and novel ways. Very few NGOs were created for that purpose. Most were formed to resolve conflict, give development aid, or provide relief during complex emergencies.
Like the national development agencies, most NGOs have come to the realization that part of their work has to include civil society as well. If not, conflict resolution training or aid alone will not make much of a difference in the long term if the conflict breaks out again. To this end, the United Nations[5], as well, has worked to expand the ways it cooperates with NGOs and others to foster civil society.
[1] "Civil Society" - An Agreed Definition (2003) available from http://pages.britishlibrary.net/blwww3/3way/civilsoc.htm; Internet.
[2] Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000).
[3] William Clinton, "Remarks to the 49th General Assembly of the United Nations, 26 September 1994. In Joseph Nye, Understanding International Conflict, 4th ed. (New York: Longman, 2003), 48.
[4] Operation Understanding DC available from http://www.oudc.org/; Internet.
[5] The United Nations: Partners in Civil Society (2003) available from http://www.un.org/partners/civil_society/home.htm; Internet.
Use the following to cite this article:
Hauss, Charles (Chip). "Civil Society." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: August 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/civil_society/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Boulding, Elise. "Introduction To Rethinking Peace Building
." , June 1997
Available at: http://www.gmu.edu/academic/pcs/boulding.htm.
This piece is an introduction to the June 1997 edition of Peace and Conflict studies. The issue contains articles focused on new approaches to peace building, including United Nations reform and civil society innovation.
Santiso, Carlos. Promoting Democratic Governance and Preventing the Recurrence of Conflict: The Role of the United Nations Development Programme in Post Conflict Peace-Building. University of Sussex: Institute of Development Studies.
Available at: http://www.eldis.org/fulltext/promoting.pdf.
Abstract: This article assesses the significance, promises and dilemmas of the governance agenda for [the United Nations Development Programme] and analyses the scope, promptings, and institutionalisation of democracy and governance programmes within UNDP, using Central America as a case study. It argues that the future of UNDP democracy assistance will largely depend on how successful it is at resolving the inherent tensions between democracy promotion and national sovereignty, while retaining its multilateral approach to peace and democracy.
Schirch, Lisa and Manjrika Sewak. "The Role of Women in Peacebuilding." , 2004
Available at: Click here for more info.
In the last ten years, a powerful and expanding network of women began to strategize and articulate a global agenda for including women in conflict prevention and peacebuilding. This paper gives a brief history of that network, examines the current concerns and tensions around women's roles in peacebuilding, and provides examples, lesson's learned, recommendations, and resources for civil society, government, and UN actors involved in conflict prevention and peacebuilding.
The Strange Disappearance of Civic America.
Available at: Click here for more info.
Interesting article looking for the cause of the decline in "civicness" in America. Topic dealt with in more depth in Putnam's book Bowling Alone (2000).
Offline (Print) Sources
Putnam, Robert D. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000.
This book examines how the social fabric of the US has changed in the last twenty-five years, and explains how these changes have affected American's health, along with America's civic health.
Lederach, John Paul. "Civil Society and Reconciliation." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, September 2001.
This chapter explores the role civil society plays in reconciliation in post-conflict societies. Lederach sees reconciliation as a dynamic, adaptive process of rebuilding interpersonal and community relationships. In order to understand the relationship between civil society and reconciliation, the author first outlines a comprehensive framework that takes peace as a process. In addition, he considers the types of social energy and emotions that are stirred up by reconciliation processes in deeply divided societies.
Fullinwider, Robert K., ed. Civil Society, Democracy, and Civic Renewal. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing, May 28, 1999.
This edited volume brings together a diverse range of perspectives on civil society. The authors come from a variety of academic disciplines and discuss topics such as the relationship between social trust and civic renewal, the role of self-help groups an their impact on society, and historical patterns of civic activity by minority groups.
Ehrenberg, John. Civil Society: The Critical History of an Idea. New York: New York University Press, March 1999.
This work provides a sort of biography of the concept of civil society and attempts to point out how the concept can be useful in contemporary affairs. The author chronicles the historical, political, and theoretical evolution of civil society over thousands of years, from Aristatole to Marx, to Colin Powell's take.
Smith, Gary and Michael Muetzelfeldt. "Global Governance and Strategies for Civil Society." Pacifica Review 12:3, October 1, 2000.
With this paper, the authors explore linkages between civil society, globalization, and governance as part of an attempt to develop a strategic approach to how civil society may effectively engage with state and interstate institutions of governance.
Putnam, Robert D. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, May 27, 1994.
Employing Italy as his case example, the author presents his theory on what makes for successful social, economic, and political institutions. Putnam constructs what he calls a "civic community index" as a measuring stick of civic involvement, arguing that communities where civic involvement is higher, tend to be more successful and prosperous. This work is considered foundation reading for understanding the concepts of social capital and civil society.
Hudock, Ann C. NGOs and Civil Society: Democracy by Proxy?. Blackwell Publishers, November 1999.
This work provides a brief introduction to the ways in which non-governmental organizations operate. It considers the strengths and weaknesses of NGO's work in the development field and argues we need a better understanding of how NGOs in the North and South operate, so the global civil society network may be strengthened.
Chandhoke, Neera. "The 'Civil' and the 'Political' in Civil Society." Democratization 8:2, 2001.
This article offers a critical examination of some of the dominant conceptualizations of civil society in recent theory. The piece problematizes the notion of civil society as a third sphere, illustrating the argument using examples from India.
The Essential Civil Society Reader. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing, October 1, 2000.
The author of this volume is one of the U.S.'s leading civil society theorists. Here, Eberly puts together an edited volume that presents the classic writings of various scholars and organizers that have brought the civil society debate into the open in American politics. In general, the work's authors argue that the restoration f a strong civil society is essential to the survival of democracy in the future.
Schudson, Michael. The Good Citizen: A history of American Civic Life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999.
A history of citizenship in America. Schudson argues that American civic participation has not declined, only changed form.
Seligman, Adam B. The Idea of Civil Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, July 3, 1995.
This work traces some of the history of the concept of civil society back to the Enlightenment, and discusses its recent revival. The author argues that the original moral and philosophical basis of civil society has been eroded over time, and that this fact will make civil society difficult to revive in the present day.
Clark, John. Worlds Apart: Civil Society and the Battle for Ethical Globalisation. London: Earthscan, 2003.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Cagoco-Guiam, Rufa. "A Critical Partnership: Civil Society & the Peace Process in Mindanao." Accord, Vol. 6 , April 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
Scroll down the page and click on "Critical Partnership, A: Civil Society & the Peace Process in Mindanao." This article discusses the civil society of Mindanao and its complicated terrain of networks, coalitions, and political alignments. Civil society has generally been left out of the process in the region and has tended to reject the agreements reached by government officials. The aim of this article is to demonstrate the potential potency of civil society organizations as players in the peace process in the Philippines.
Nation, Fitzroy. "Africa Nets: No Boundaries." Conflict Prevention Newsletter, Vol. 2, No. 3 , October 1, 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
Networks of conflict prevention organizations have cast a blanket of peace building across Africa. The author argues that this process is creating an atmosphere where civil society on the African continent is developing less of a narrow national focus, and is becoming more sub-regional, regional, and even Pan-African in character and outlook.
Mullojanov, Parviz. "Civil Society and Peacebuilding." Accord, Vol. 10 , March 2001
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses the role of various civil society actors in promoting peacebuilding in Tajikistan, and eventually reaching the 1997 General Agreement for peace.
Lord, David. "Civil Society and Peacebuilding:The Role of the Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone." Accord, Vol. 9 , September 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article examines the history and role of the Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone (IRCSL) in negotiating the Lome Peace Agreement. The author argues that the IRCSL stands out as the most visible non-governmental bridge builder between opposing factions and Sierra Leone civil society.
de Vrieze, Franklin. "Kosovo: Civil Society Awaits a Chance for Reconciliation." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses Kosovo's recovery from its violent political conflict, and the movement toward a democratic and stable society.
Prasad, Satendra. "Limits and Possibilities for Civil Society Led Re-democratization: The Fijian Constitutional Debates and Dilemma." , 1900
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper examines the experiences of the Citizens Constitutional Forum in promoting a people-based process aimed at advancing the prospects for a sustainable settlement to Fiji's constitutional crisis. It also assesses the prospects for and constraints upon such civil society initiatives in promoting redemocratization and demilitarization in an ethnically divided society.
Creative Associates International. Political Development and Governance: Civic Society-Building.
Available at: Click here for more info.
Provides background of how civil society can be built in post-conflict societies and their role in preventing the reemergence of conflict. Provides examples from the Philippines.
Saunders, Harold H. and Rana H. Slim. "The Inter-Tajik Dialogue: From Civil War Towards Civil Society." Accord, Vol. 10 , March 2001
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article examines the Inter-Tajik Dialogue and its crucial role in establishing communication between conflicting factions involved in the Tajikistan civil war.
McCartney, Clem. "The Role of Civil Society." Accord, Vol. 8 , December 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses efforts in Northern Ireland to build community infrastructure through government organizations and local activism. The article chronicles important community activist groups and their activities and role in the Northern Ireland peace process from the 1970's on.
The World Bank and Civil Society.
Available at: Click here for more info.
"The purpose of this web site is to provide [civil society organization's] with information and materials on the World Bank's evolving relationship with civil society throughout the world. CSOs will find information on ongoing policy consultations, funding sources, operational partnerships and, publications." -from The World Bank Group website
Offline (Print) Sources
Hemmer, Bruce. "Bottom-Up Peacebuilding in Bosnia." PARC News Spring, 1997.
This article argues for empowering Bosnians with the means and tools to build a democratic civil society. It also maintains that peace building and reconciliation processes need to support these empowerment initiatives. Click here for more info.
Van Der Linde, Ada and Rachel Naylor. Building Sustainable Peace: Conflict, Conciliation, and Civil Society in Northern Ghana. Oxfam Publications, November 1, 1999.
This book addresses the intense fighting and displacement of population that occurred in the northern Region of Ghana in 1994-5 and the formal peace treaty that attempted to resolve it.
Lumsden, Malvern. "Peacebuilding in Macedonia: Searching for Common Ground in Civil society." International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO), PRIO Report 2/97, Oslo, International Peace Research Institute, Oslo International Peace Research Institute, Oslo, 1997.
In this report, the author examines the external and internal factors influencing relationships between the ethnic communities in Macedonia, and the role of an NGO "Search for Common Ground in Macedonia" in attempting to improve their relationships. This role has shifted from an emphasis on high-level Track II diplomacy to community-level projects, compatible with UNESCO's concept of a Culture of Peace.
"Working to Establish Civil Society." In People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories From Around the World. Edited by European Centre for Conflict Prevention, ed. Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999.
Reviews the problems in creating the Center for Peace, Nonviolence and Human Rights in Osijek, Croatia.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Nkulelko Means Freedom . Directed and/or Produced by: Hallis, Ron and Ophera Hallis. First Run Icarus Films. 1983.
This film shows how an educational system helped to empower the people of Zimbabwe and thus promote a democratic civil society. Click here for more info.
Quest for Change . Directed and/or Produced by: Norton, Augustus Richard and Steven R. Talley. First Run Icarus Films. 1994.
This film interviews five scholars from the Middle East about the area's political, and civil society circumstances. It also relates their ideas about future democratic and civil society possibilities for the region. Click here for more info.
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Teaching Materials on this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Center for Civic Education.
Available at: http://www.civiced.org.
The Center for Civic Education is a nonprofit, nonpartisan educational corporation dedicated to fostering the development of informed, responsible participation in civic life by citizens committed to values and principles fundamental to American constitutional democracy. Their website provides curricular materials and linds to journal articles, as well as other information related to the center and its programs.
The Center for Civic Education.
Available at: http://www.civiced.org/about.php.
The Center for Civic Education is a nonprofit, nonpartisan educational corporation dedicated to fostering the development of informed, responsible participation in civic life by citizens committed to values and principles fundamental to American constitutional democracy. The Center specializes in civic/citizenship education, law-related education, and international educational exchange programs for developing democracies. Programs focus on the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights; American political traditions and institutions at the federal, state, and local levels; constitutionalism; civic participation; and the rights and responsibilities of citizens.
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