What Is Fear?
Fear is "an unpleasant and often strong emotion caused by anticipation or awareness of danger."[1] Fear is completely natural and helps people to recognize and respond to dangerous situations and threats. However, healthy fear -- or fear which has a protective function -- can evolve into unhealthy or pathological fear, which can lead to exaggerated and violent behavior.
"The common thread that weaves violent political movements together is fear. It is not the only motivating factor behind political violence, nor necessarily the most obvious, but it is virtually always there. Whenever we ask why people hate, or why they are willing to kill or die for a cause, the answer is invariably fear." -- James F. Mattil
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Dr. Ivan Kos lays out several different stages of fear. The first is real fear, or fear based on a real situation. If someone or something hurts you, you have a reason to fear it in the future. Second is realistic, or possible fear. This is fear based in reality that causes a person to avoid a threat in the first place (i.e. waiting to cross a busy road for safety reasons). Next, exaggerated or emotional fear deals with an individual "recalling past fears or occurrences and injecting them into a current situation."[2] This type of fear is particularly relevant to conflict. Emotional fear affects the way people handle conflictual situations.
Causes of Fear
Conflict is often driven by unfulfilled needs and the fears related to these needs. The most common fear in intractable conflict is the fear of losing one's identity and/or security. Individuals and groups identify themselves in certain ways (based on culture, language, race, religion, etc.) and threats to those identities arouse very real fears -- fears of extinction, fears of the future, fears of oppression, etc.
For many people, the world is changing rapidly and their lives are being altered as a result. For some religious people, this change leads to the fear that young people will abandon the Church or Mosque, that the media will become more important and influential in the lives of their children, and that they are losing control of their own future. These threats to identity result in fear.[3]
Similarly, in many ethnic conflicts, a history of "humiliation, oppression, victimhood, feelings of inferiority, persecution of one's group, and other kinds of discrimination" lead to a fear of similar wrongdoing in the future.[4] These historical memories shape how groups and people see each other. As a result, historical violence between Israelis and Palestinians, Hutus and Tutsis, and Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland affects how these groups look at one another and often leads to fear of one another. Group fears often translate into individual fears, as group extinction is often associated with individual extinction.
These examples illustrate the important role that history plays in the development of fear. Memories of past injustices lead individuals to anticipate future oppression or violence with a sense of anxiety and dread.
Why Fear Matters
Additional insights into fear are offered by Beyond Intractability project participants.
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Fear is a very important factor in intractable conflict. Emotions like fear can often cause extreme and seemingly irrational behavior in people, which can result in escalating conflict. According to James F. Mattil, the Managing Editor of Flashpoints: Guide to World Conflict, "The common thread that weaves violent political movements together is fear. It is not the only motivating factor behind political violence, nor necessarily the most obvious, but it is virtually always there. Whenever we ask why people hate, or why they are willing to kill or die for a cause, the answer is invariably fear."[5]
People are social in nature, with shared values, religion, tradition, language, etc. Whenever the basic characteristics that tie a group together are threatened, the group will fear for its survival. As a result, the group will also attempt to get rid of the threat, sometimes through distorted or violent means.
History plays an important role in this process. Historical experiences shape how groups view threats. If a group has been hurt or wounded in the past, it affects their outlook today. For example, historical tensions and wrongdoing affect the way Israelis and Palestinians see each other today. Oftentimes, history is exaggerated -- meaning one group is portrayed as extremely heroic and another group portrayed as barbarian or inhuman. This in turn leads to more mistreatment, as it is easier to abuse or hurt a group that has been dehumanized. A cycle develops--someone is hurt, resulting in fear and the demonization of the person or group that hurt them. This, in turn, makes it easier for future wrongdoing to occur.
It is also important to note the impact that elites, or leaders, have on fear and conflict. Oftentimes, leaders use fear to their political advantage. Leaders need support from those they lead, and one way to gain this support is by playing on the fears of the people. Leaders in Northern Ireland can use the fear of either the Protestants or the Catholics to their own political advantage. Many have asserted that George Bush used the fear of another 9-11 to support the second U.S. war in Iraq. Leaders can even intentionally deepen these fears for their own purposes. Doing so can aggravate the already existing fears and lead to future difficulties.[6]
Dealing with Fear
Individuals: There are many ways of approaching fear in the context of conflict. However, since fear is such a personal issue, most approaches focus on the individual. There are various ways to deal with your own fear, including
- becoming aware of it,
- identifying the ways you express fear
- recognizing the situations which trigger fear, and
- using behavioral techniques to reduce fear and stress.[7]
In order to overcome fears, individuals and groups must first come to terms with their own fears and understand just how destructive they can be. However, it is equally important to be aware of others' fears. Being aware of other people's fear allows you to deal with it appropriately. One of the most effective ways of handling the fear of others is through empathy, or seeing things from the other person's perspective. Once one does that, one can recognize actions of one's own that might be unnecessarily causing fear on the other side. By toning down one's language, or clarifying one's interests and needs, it is possible to dispel unwarranted fears, thereby helping the other side feel more secure. Empathy is also important in any attempt at reconciliation or mediation because it helps to foster a positive interaction between people.[8] It is also important to share your own fears so that others can empathize with you in return, and alter their behavior in ways that will lessen that fear as well.
"We have nothing to fear but fear itself." -- Franklin Roosevelt 1933, First Inaugural Address
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Officials: Public support is essential for political leaders. One way leaders can gain this support is by addressing, playing off of, or even causing the fears of his or her people. As a result, leaders can play an important role in the creation and/or calming of fears, particularly in ethnic or inter-group conflicts. It is important that leaders are aware of the consequences of using fear as a motivational tool. Because fear is such a powerful emotion, leaders must be extremely cautious about playing on the fears of people. The former Yugoslavia is a perfect example of how the fears of the people can be used by leaders for power. Serb leaders often played on Serb fears in order to strengthen their power and to push people to do things they might otherwise have refused to do.[9] Contrast this with the very famous quote of Franklin Roosevelt: "We have nothing to fear but fear itself." This is an overstatement...fear can be real and justified, but it is far too dangerous to exploit for other aims.
Third Parties: Mediators and third parties can play an important part in helping people to overcome their fears. By understanding the ways in which fear can create and escalate conflict, third parties can address these issues in a constructive manner. One way this can be accomplished is by assuring that people on both sides of a conflict feel that their individual needs and fears are being addressed. Oftentimes this is done through no-fault discussions, wherein people are not allowed to discuss who is wrong in a situation, but only ways in which they may move toward a peaceful resolution. Neither side should have to sacrifice in areas that they consider to be an important need or fear. Solutions must always "satisfy fundamental needs and allay deepest fears."[10]
It is also important to remember that an issue such as identity and the fears associated with it are not zero-sum. In other words, the calming of one group's fear does not necessarily mean that another group has more reason to fear. Usually quite the opposite is true. The more secure one group feels, the less they feel a need to attack other groups. Thus security can actually be a win-win or positive sum game: the more one side has, the more the other side has too. This is true from the bully on the playground...who is usually an insecure child, to the bully in the international system.
Through empathy and understanding, groups in conflict can learn about the fears and needs of others and, in the process, overcome their own fears as well.
[1] Merriam-Webster Online [book on-line] (accessed 7 March 2003); available from http://www.webster.com; Internet.
[2] Paul Wahrhaftig, Belgrade Combating Fear Project [article on-line] (accessed 11 March 2003); available from http://www.conflictres.org/vol181/belgrade.html; Internet.
[3] James F. Mattil, What in the Name of God?: Fundamentalism, Fear & Terrorism [article on-line] (accessed 7 March 2003); available from http://www.flashpoints.info/issue_briefings/Analysis%20&%20Commentary/Analysis-Religion_main.htm ; Internet.
[4] Steve Utterwulghe, Rwanda's Protracted Social Conflict: Considering the Subjective Perspective in Conflict Resolution Strategies [article on-line] (accessed 7 March 2003); available from http://www.trinstitute.org/ojpcr/2_3utter.htm; Internet.
[5] James F. Mattil, What in the Name of God?: Fundamentalism, Fear & Terrorism [article on-line] (accessed 7 March 2003); available from http://www.flashpoints.info/issue_briefings/Analysis%20&%20Commentary/Analysis-Religion_main.htm ; Internet.
[6] Herbert Kelman, "Social-Psychological Dimensions of International Conflict," in Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques, eds. I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997), 197.
[7] **Endnote missing (will add later).
[8] Herbert Kelman, "Social-Psychological Dimensions of International Conflict," in Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques, eds. I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997), 199.
[9] Anthony Oberschall, The manipulation of ethnicity: from ethnic cooperation to violence and war in Yugoslavia [article on-line] (accessed 13 March 2003); available from http://www.unc.edu/courses/2002fall/soci/326/039/manipulation_of_ethnicity.pdf; Internet.
[10] Herbert Kelman, "Social-Psychological Dimensions of International Conflict," in Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques, eds. I. William Zartman and J. Lewis Rasmussen (Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997), 197.
Use the following to cite this article:
Barker, Phil. "Fear." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: July 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/fear/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Glaser, Tanya. "Emotions in Negotiation: How to Manage Fear and Anger--Summary." University of Colorado: Conflict Research Consortium.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/articlesummary/10011/.
This summary covers an article by Robert S. Adler, Benson Rosen, and Elliot M. Silverstein from the Negotiation Journal. In the article, the authors discuss the management of fear and anger in negotiation situations.
Williams, Dai. "Fear and Violence in Stressed Populations: Stress, Violence and Peace in the Balkans." , April 27, 1999
Available at: http://www.eoslifework.co.uk/gturmap.htm.
This article discusses how fear and stress can lead to strong reactions from individuals and subsequent conflict. The ways in which individuals handle stress and fear are considered through discussion and diagrams.
Scaring Ourselves to Death: Conquering Fear in a Time of Terror. 2004.
Available at: http://www.aworldofpossibilities.com/details.cfm?id=175.
An interview with Mohamed Ibrahim, Jim McDermott, Neil Smelser, and Adele Welty. Since 9/11 we've been buffeted by orange and red alerts and the rhetoric of threat causing us to inhabit a culture of fear. Join us as we ask whether we can immunize ourselves against the virus of fear and whether this fear threatens us far more than the terrorists ever could on their own.
Mattil, James F. "What in the Name of God?: Religious Fundamentalism, Fear & Terrorism." , 1900
Available at: Click here for more info.
Mattil looks at the role of fear in the development of religious fundamentalism. Specifically, the power that fear of change has over people is addressed.
Offline (Print) Sources
Heppen, Jessica et al. "Conclusion: Toward a Social Identity Framework for Intergroup Conflict." In Social Identity, Intergroup Conflict, and Conflict Reduction. Edited by Ashmore, Richard D., Lee Jussim and David Wilder, eds. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Adler, Robert S., Benson Rosen and Elliot M. Silverstein. "Emotions in Negotiation: How to Manage Fear and Anger." Negotiation Journal 14:2, April 1998.
Adler, Rosen, and Silverstein look at the role of fear and anger in the negotiation process. Specifically, they consider the ways to deal with anger and fear so as to prevent negotiations from breaking down. Click here for more info.
Kelman, Herbert C. "Social-Psychological Dimensions of International Conflict." In Peacemaking in International Conflicts: Methods and Techniques. Edited by Zartman, I. William and J. Lewis Rasmussen, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, August 1, 1997.
Kelman provides a good explanation of the ideas behind conflict as a process driven by collective needs and fears. The process that takes place when fear is translated into conflict is explained from a social-psychological perspective, and then various approaches to dealing with conflict are discussed. Kelman also addresses the role of elites in the mobilization of groups throughout the chapter.
Chandler, David B. "Violence, Fear, and Communication: The Variable Impact of Domestic Violence on Mediation." Mediation Quarterly 7:4, 1990.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Wahrhaftig, Paul. "Belgrade Combating Fear Project." , 1900
Available at: http://mediate.com/articles/fear1.cfm.
This brief article describes the role of fear in the ethnic conflicts of the Balkan Peninsula. It discusses ways in which workshops have attempted to overcome the fears of those that were affected by the fighting, as well as the various types of fear that people experience.
Eyewitness Accounts: Genocide in Bangladesh. Bosnia and East Timor Pages.
Available at: http://www.globalwebpost.com/genocide1971/witness/witness.htm.
An eyewitness gives his story of fear and violence in Bangladesh by Pakistan soldiers.
"Prevention Programs Addressing Bullying and Conflict Resolution." , 1900
Available at: Click here for more info.
The role of fear in bullying is addressed in this article on conflict resolution with children.
Utterwulghe, Steve. "Rwanda's Protracted Social Conflict: Considering the Subjective Perspective in Conflict Resolution Strategies." Online Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution, Vol. 2, No. 3 ,
Available at: http://trinstitute.org/ojpcr/2_3utter.htm.
Rwanda's traumatic ethnic conflict and genocide are considered from several perspectives in this article. The sections on "Psycho-cultural Conflict Theory" lay out a way of looking at the role that identity had in the conflict - most notably the importance of fear as a factor. The article also provides historical background to the conflict.
Will the Center Hold? Taming the Terror in Northern Ireland. 2004.
Available at: http://www.aworldofpossibilities.com/details.cfm?id=174.
An interview with Mark Durkan, Mari Fitzduff, David Ford, and Jane Morrice. Northern Ireland: loveliness and strife at once but, you'll hear no gunfire there today. After generations of animosities, Protestants and Catholics reach for reconcilitation. In this program, we learn from them about taming terror and the fear of it. This is an Irish tale that is both cautionary and hopeful.
Offline (Print) Sources
Oberschall, Anthony. "The Manipulation of Ethnicity: From Ethnic Cooperation to Violence and War in Yugoslavia." Ethnic and Racial Studies 23:6, 2000.
Oberschall looks at the role of elite manipulation in the context of the Balkan wars between Serbia and the other former Yugoslav states. The article discusses how leaders and the media played a strong role in creating ethnic tension through the use of fear and distorted histories.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Alonso's Dream . Directed and/or Produced by: Lacourse, Daniele and Yvan Patry. First Run Icarus Films. 2000.
This film presents a contemplative and critical look at the impact the Zapatista uprising and paramilitary violence have had on the Mayan people.
Click here for more info.
An American Ism: Joe McCarthy . Directed and/or Produced by: Silber, Glenn. First Run Icarus Films. 1978.
This film uses the voices of politicians, and McCarthy supporters and victims, to explain how anti-Communist supporters used fear to undermine US democratic processes and to justify blacklisting and ruining the lives of Americans affiliated with an opposing political ideology. Click here for more info.
Aqabat Jaber: Peace With No Return? . Directed and/or Produced by: Sivan, Eyal. First Run Icarus Films. 1995.
In this film the people of Aqabat Jaber, a Palestinian refugee camp, relate their experiences as refugees and their hopes and fears of the future.
First Kill. Directed and/or Produced by: Schrijber, Coco. First Run Icarus Films. 2001.
This film explores the psychological and emotional effects of war on humans. More specifically, it interviews veterans in its efforts to understand the seductive power of war, and the complexity of emotions that war and killing bring to those involved. Click here for more info.
Guatemala: Personal Testimonies. First Run Icarus Films. 1982.
In this film, Guatemalans' give witness to the human rights abuses they endured during the government's military campaign of fear. Click here for more info.
Scared Again: Jews in Berlin, 1993 . Directed and/or Produced by: Hoepker, Thomas. First Run Icarus Films. 1993.
Through the eyes of sometimes fearful, sometimes defiant German Jews, this film explores the new wave of anti-semitism that has emerged in Germany since its reunification. Click here for more info.
Scars of Memory / Cicatriz de la Memoria . Directed and/or Produced by: Gould, Jeffrey and Carlos Henriquez Consalvi. First Run Icarus Films. 2002.
This film documents the testimonies of numerous Salvadorians who survived the 1932 brutal mass murder of thousands of peasant dissenters. Click here for more info.
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