Additional insights into large-scale communication are offered by Beyond Intractability project participants.
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Communication plays a major role in promoting and alleviating conflict. The source of conflict can often be traced back to a lack of communication, or an inability to express who we are and what we desire. Such communication is important on two levels: in small-scale settings, such as one-on-one or small-group communication, and in larger-scale settings, such as the news and entertainment media.
Much of the information we receive about the world around us is either influenced or controlled by the media, including television, newspapers, and radio. Other than information we personally take in, our view of the world is largely shaped by the way in which information is presented by these media outlets. For instance, someone from the United States may receive information about the current conflict in Northern Ireland only from news reports on the television and radio, or in the newspaper. Similarly, people in Northern Ireland may know little about the conflict between Pakistan and India, other than what they see or read in their local and national news. Because of this limited exposure to information, it is very important to recognize the impact that the media have on conflict and to ensure that this influence is used appropriately.
Why Focus on Conflict?
The news and entertainment media tend to focus on conflict. The news media rely on advertising for income, and advertisers look for programs with a large number of viewers: "Audiences are the commodity the commercial media sell to their advertisers."[1] Media representatives assert that they focus on conflict because that is what people want to see. Conflict is more "interesting" to viewers than peace, just as an accident on the road draws the attention of passersby. The result is a tendency to "focus on the episodic and fragmentary accounts of the most dramatic moments largely leaving out the preceding causes and antecedent consequences."[2]
This habit of focusing on the negative aspects of a conflictual situation is extremely problematic. By only addressing these aspects of an issue, the information is skewed and can adversely affect the ideas and images that the audience has of the conflict participants. This is particularly worrisome when it affects the attitudes of the participants themselves. If an individual in Israel only hears negative news about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict via the media, then his or her attitudes and actions are affected accordingly.[3]
What Should the Media Do?
Because of the great responsibility associated with reporting the news, there is some controversy as to how reporters, editors, and others associated with the process should treat stories on conflict. There is often a call for unbiased views in the news media, associated with an apparent responsibility to look at a situation without taking sides. However, a lack of bias is impossible to achieve, as every person has his or her own opinions and perspectives that do not disappear while he or she is reporting a story. In addition, "as all journalists know, their mere presence on the scene often alters the behavior of parties to conflict."[4] In many cases, the parties involved in the conflict use the media to their own advantage, portraying themselves or their causes in a positive light. This is, quite obviously, a difficult situation to deal with.
One alternative to the idea of unbiased reporting is peace journalism, in which reporters draw on the insights of conflict assessment and resolution to try to better explain the interests of each side and the conflict dynamics, including coverage of constructive or de-escalatory moves.[5]
In addition, the media can play a large role in the spread of small-group conflict-resolution techniques to the larger audience. In other words, the negotiations and resolutions that are produced in small-group discussions (i.e., peace treaties) are only useful to the extent that the actual parties to the conflict accept them. (See the essay on scaling up.) Media outlets can be a vital part of this process, spreading information about the peace agreements and the benefits of peace in the attempt to get people to understand and embrace the agreements.
Clearly the media are an integral part of any conflict situation, even though they may not play any direct role. It is very important that the media and individuals involved in it realize their impact. Understanding the role of the media allows us to move in the right direction, by recognizing media bias and dealing with it accordingly. The media, just as any other actor in conflict, must be aware of the consequences of their actions in the hope that they will ultimately alleviate tension, rather than exacerbate it.
What Can Individuals Do?
Individuals need to be aware of the inevitable (and sometimes intentional) bias of reporting and try to read and/or listen to reports from several different types of sources. Rather than relying on one newspaper or television station, listen to as many different accounts as possible, and examine the differences in coverage to try to get a better picture of the views of all sides of a conflict situation. With the Internet it is particularly easy now to get first-hand reports from all over the world. One must be careful to examine the source: some are likely to be credible, others very much not. But even reports that are not credible do give a picture of what one side feels and fears, and what they are trying to get their own constituents and the outside world to believe. For example, some Palestinian reports of Israeli attacks on the West Bank are highly exaggerated, but even so, they give a useful idea of the feelings and fears of many Palestinian people. The same thing is true on the other side: some Israeli reporting too is exaggerated, but it gives an insight into Israeli feelings and fears. By comparing these very partisan reports with other more "objective" reporting -- from, for instance, The New York Times, the BBC, or other respected news outlets, it is possible to develop a better picture of what is actually going on.
[1] Tehranian, Majod. "Communication and Conflict" in Media Development, Issue 4 (1996).
[2] Tehranian, Majod. "Communication and Conflict" in Media Development, Issue 4 (1996).
[3] See essay on stereotyping.
[4] Botes, Johannes. "Journalism and Conflict Resolution" in Media Development, Issue 4 (1996).
[5] Annabel McGoldrick and Jake Lynch, "Peace Journalism: How to Do It." Accessed at http://www.transcend.org/tpu/courses.shtml?x=89; A bibliography of more peace journalism articles is available at "Published Articles and Chapters About Peace Journalism and Reporting the World", available online at http://213.232.90.139/clients/rtwhome.nsf/ad/4D1C022AA3DE3EA780256D9C003D3568/$file/rtwarticles+.htm.
Use the following to cite this article:
Barker, Phil. "Large-Scale Communication." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: March 2005 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/large_scale_communication/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
The Communication Initiative.
Available at: http://www.comminit.com/.
The Communication Initiative is a partnership of development organizations seeking to support advances in the effectiveness and scale of communication interventions for positive international development.
Manoff, Robert Karl. The Media's Role in Preventing Deadly Conflict.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article examines the role that the media can potentially play in preventing the twenty-first century from being as conflict-ridden and bloody as the twentieth.
Offline (Print) Sources
Thrall, A. Trevor. War in the Media Age. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, 2000.
Thrall argues that the White House, not the military, is primarily responsible for the growth of press controls. He believes that the rising importance of the press in everyday political life has resulted in presidents altering both their media strategy and their approach to war. This book also provides an interesting historical review of how the US government has restricted media access from the Vietnam War to the Persian Gulf War.
Burton, John W. Conflict and Communication: The Use of Controlled Communication in International Relations. London: Macmillan, 1969.
This groundbreaking work is an early example of a discussion advocating what is now known as Track Two diplomacy.
Davidson, Walter Philips. Mass Communication and Conflict Resolution: The Role of the Information Media in the Advancement of International Understanding. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974.
Allen, T. and J. Seaton, eds. The Media of Conflict: War Reporting and Representations of Ethnic Violence. London: Zed Books, May 1999.
This work analyzes media coverage of conflicts in the post-Cold War world, questioning media portrayals of primordial ethnic loyalties and hatreds as the driving force. The work highlights the dangers of basing analyses on vague, unfounded notions about human motivation or on mythologized ideas about the past.
Dissanayake, Andrew and Wimal Arno. The News Media in National and International Conflict. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, April 1984.
The News Media, Civil War and Humanitarian Action. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, June 1996.
Taylor, Phillip. War and the Media. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
"Communications and Education: Peace Media." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
"Peace media uses radio, television, and print journalism to promote peace, to disseminate truthful information or alternate viewpoints that could turn public sentiment toward peaceful resolution of conflict, or to counter 'hate radio.'" This page includes all the pertinent information regarding peace media as a tool in conflict prevention and resolution.
Galtung, Johan. "High Road, Low Road: Charting the Course for Peace Journalism." Track Two, Vol.7, No.4 , December 1, 1998
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article urges the media not to report the savagery and struggle associated with war, but rather instead to focus on conflict transformation processes that take the conflict towards peace.
Vinokurov, Georgy. Media Coverage of the Chechen Conflict.
Available at: http://www.medialaw.ru/e_pages/publications/chechen.htm.
This article provides analysis of media coverage of the conflict in Chechnya by various mass media outlets, particularly Russian sources.
Wolfsfeld, Gadi. The News Media and Peace Processes: The Middle East and Northern Ireland. United States Institute of Peace.
Available at: http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks37.pdf.
This report explains how and when the media takes different roles in the promotion of peace. They can emphasize the benefits that peace can bring, they can raise the legitimacy of groups or leaders working for peace, and they can help transform images of the enemy. But the media also can serve as destructive agents in a peace process. They can emphasize the risks and dangers associated with compromise, raise the legitimacy of those opposed to concessions, and reinforce negative stereotypes of the enemy.
Terzis, Georgios, Sandra D. Melone and Ozsel Beleli. "Using Media for Conflict Transformation: The Common Ground Experience." Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, 1900.
http://www.berghof-handbook.net/articles/melone_hb.pdf.
This essay discusses how pluralism in the media, along with fair and accurate journalism, can contribute to the transformation of a conflict. Using the work that Common Ground (CG) has initiated, with regards to targeting journalists specifically and the media in general in areas of political tension (i.e., Angola, Burundi, Sierra Leone), this paper illustrates the transformation process.
Offline (Print) Sources
Miller, David. Don't Mention the War: Northern Ireland, Propaganda, and the Media. London: Pluto, October 1, 1994.
This work analyzes the media manipulation that took place during the conflict in Northern Ireland. It is based on over 100 interviews with jounalists, government officials, activists, and politicians. It reveals many of the lies of propagandists and demonstrates the successes of media managers in shaping the public's perceptions of the conflict.
Magnusson, Thomas, ed. From Saigon to Sarajevo: Mass Media in Times of War. Stockholm: International Peace Bureau, 1994.
Girardet, E., Andrea Bartoli and J. Carmel. Somalia, Rwanda and Beyond: The Role of International Media in Wars and Humanitarian Crises. Dublin: Crosslines, 1995.
"The purpose of this book is to explore the role of the international media, whether print, radio, or television, in the reporting of wars and other humanitarian crises: famines, refugee exoduses, ethnic, religious or political repression, tribal massacres, genocide. By focusing on recent conflicts such as Somalia, Rwanda, and Chechnya, but also continuing wars largely ignored by the mainstream media ranging from Angola to Sri Lanka, we hope to highlight some of the trends now affecting the quality of journalistic reporting in the mid-1990s." - Introduction
Carruthers, Susan L. The Media at War: Communication and Conflict in the Twentieth Century. MacMillan, 2000.
This assessment of the role of the media before, during and after wars draws on examples from the 20th century's total wars as well as limited wars, terrorist campaigns, and complex emergencies such as Somalia. Carruthers argues that the media's performance in wartime may result as much from peacetime journalistic practices as from the special circumstances of war. This book is an excellent read on the relationship between the military, the government, and the media--The introduction and chapter five are particularly worth reading.
Butler, David. The Trouble With Reporting Northern Ireland: The British State, the Broadcast Media and Nonfictional Representation of the Conflict. Avebury, June 1995.
Hudson, Miles and John Stanier. War and the Media: A Random Searchlight. New York: New York University Press, March 1998.
This work analyzes media coverage of several well-known conflicts, comparing what the media reported against actual events. It includes analysis of conflicts such as Northern Ireland and Gulf War I.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Gore Vidal on the "United States of Amnesia," 9/11, the 2000 Election and the War in Iraq. Democracy Now!. May 13, 2003.
Available at: http://democracynow.org/transcripts/gorevidal.shtml.
Amy Goodman, from Democracy Now! interviews Gore Vidal, author and "the finest serious critique of America's use and abuse of power in the 21st century." He discusses his view of the reign of terror that has been established by the Bush dictatorship, along with the electoral process in the United States corruption in the Bush/Gore election.
Offline (Print) Sources
Only the News that Fits. 1989.
In the context of Nicaragua's Arias Peace Plan negotiations in 1987, this film demonstrates just how truly we should not believe all that we are told.
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