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Most of the negotiation literature focuses on two strategies, although they call them by different names. One strategy is interest-based (or integrative, or cooperative) bargaining, while the other is positional (or distributive or competitive) bargaining. In their best-selling book on negotiation, Getting to Yes, Roger Fisher and William Ury argue that there are three approaches: hard, soft, and what they call "principled negotiation." Hard is essentially extremely competitive bargaining, soft extremely integrative bargaining (so integrative that one gives up one's own interests in the hopes of meeting the other person's interests) and principled negotiation is supposed to be somewhere in between, but closer to soft, certainly, than hard. All of these topics are discussed in this section.
Paul Wehr describes the usefulness of the single-text negotiating approach in a university conflict.
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Lax and Sebenius were among the first to argue that actually all negotiations were combinations of both approaches. First negotiators try to "create value" by enlarging the pie as much as they can. (This is the approach advocated by interest-based and principled negotiation.) But inevitably, the pie will then need to be divided up, which calls for distributive negotiation. So they claim that all negotiation is a combination of creating and claiming value, not one or the other as other theorists suggest.
The last essay in this section talks about different negotiation strategies used in different cultures. Principled negotiation, many argue, is a very American approach to conflict. Other cultures negotiate very differently, as this essay describes.
Use the following to cite this article:
Burgess, Heidi. "Negotiation Strategies." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: January 2004 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/negotiation_strategies/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Glaser, Tanya. "Creating and Claiming Value--Summary." University of Colorado: Conflict Research Consortium.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/articlesummary/10350/.
This page is a summary of D. Lax's and J. Sebenius's article, The Manager as Negotiator: The Negotiator's Dilemma: Creating and Claiming Value. Lax and Sebenius argue that negotiation necessarily includes both cooperative and competitive elements, and that these elements exist in tension. Negotiators face a dilemma in deciding whether to pursue a cooperative or a competitive strategy. The authors suggest strategies to resolve this dilemma, and ways to encourage cooperative approaches to creating mutually beneficial outcomes.
Hammond, D. P. Interest-Based Bargaining. American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME).
Available at: http://www.afscme.org/wrkplace/cbr495_1.htm.
This article explains what interest based bargaining is, how it works, and who should be interested in it.
Kersten, Gregory. "Modeling Distributive and Integrative Negotiations: Review and Revised Characterization ." ,
Available at: http://interneg.concordia.ca/interneg/research/papers/2000/02.pdf.
This paper examines and critiques the assumed contradictions between integrative and distributive negotiations, in light of evidence from new negotiation support software.
"Negotiations and Resolving Conflicts: An Overview." ,
Available at: http://web.cba.neu.edu/~ewertheim/interper/negot3.htm.
This web page offers a well-organized and fairly comprehensive overview of two primary negotiation strategies, integrated and distributive. It covers the key aspects of both approaches, provides information about creating and claiming value, and gives general advice about how to proceed in negotiation situations.
"Principled Negotiation--Summary." ,
Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/treatment/pricneg.htm.
This page outlines some of the main points of principled negotiation and suggests further readings on the topic. Principled negotiation, described by Fisher and Ury in Getting to Yes, is a four-step negotiation strategy based on interests. In cases where there are reasonable prospects for an agreement which benefits all parties, and the parties have a relationship which allows them to explore such opportunities, principled negotiation can be an extremely effective conflict resolution approach. ple
Helms, Wesley S. "Rubbing Your Nose Off At The Grindstone." , February 2003
Available at: http://www.mediate.com/articles/helmsW.cfm?nl=18.
This article explores positional bargaining. The author argues, "positional bargaining only works in the short term, during times of crisis, and when it meets the needs of the bargainers constituency. Hard positional bargaining beyond the system's perceived crisis timeframe damages relationships and alienates the bargainer."
Conflict Research Consortium Staff and CR Staff. "The Negotiation Process: Theories and Applications - Book Summary." University of Colorado: Conflict Research Consortium, 1900.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/booksummary/10633/.
This is a summary of The Negotiation Process, edited by I. William Zartman. The essays included in this book present various theoretic models of the negotiation process, and apply those models to particular case studies.
Offline (Print) Sources
The Negotiation Process: Theories and Applications. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, August 1978.
The Negotiation Process explores different approaches to negotiation theory. The essays present various theoretic models of the negotiation process, and apply those models to particular case studies Click here for more info.
Kramer, Henry S. Game, Set, Match: Winning the Negotiations Game. New York: Alm Publishing , 2001.
"Professionals in the business of collective bargaining and arbitration who aspire to improve their negotiating skills will appreciate Henry S. Kramer's well-conceived, clearly presented and in-depth book, Game, Set, Match: Winning the Negotiations Game. Kramer, professor at Cornell's New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, lays bare the delicate intricacies of negotiating, illustrating each point with an anecdote and highlighting important tips throughout the book. While Kramer's book could help readers buy a house or secure a raise, its real value is for people whose business it is to schmooze, finagle and, ultimately, come out winners." - Publishers Weekly
Fisher, Roger, William L. Ury and Bruce Patton. Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In, 2nd Edition . Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., April 1992.
This is an updated version of Roger Fisher's and William Ury's classic 1981 text, Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In. In this bestseller, Fisher, Ury, and Patton describe what they call "principled negotiation", which is basically interest-based bargaining with a few extra twists. Key ideas include: 1) separate the people from the problem; 2) negotiate interests, not positions; 3) look for mutually beneficial options; and 4) use objective criteria. This work is considered essential foundational reading for anyone interested in negotiation. Click here for more info.
Lax, David and James Sebenius. "Interests: The Measure of Negotiation." Negoitation Theory and Practice , January 1, 1991.
This essay discusses how the interests of negotiators themselves play into the negotiation process. The authors also make an effort to clearly distinguish various types of interests from one another as well as distinguish interests from issues and positions. They note that in some instances, commitment to a position is the most effective way to claim value in a dispute.
Druckman, Daniel. "Negotiating in the International Context." In Peacemaking in International Conflict: Methods and Techniques. Edited by Zartman, I. William and J. Lewis Rasmussen, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1997.
This chapter examines various perspectives on international negotiation, including; negotiation as puzzle solving, as a bargaining game, as organizational management, and negotiation as diplomatic politics. In addition to considering these perspectives on negotiation, the author explores general patterns that characterize many types of negotiations. This task is pursued through a survey of the literature on negotiating in the international context.
Fisher, Roger. "Negotiating Power: Getting and Using Influence." In Negotiation Theory and Practice. Edited by Rubin, Jeffrey Z. and J. William Breslin, eds. Cambridge: Program on Negotiation Books, 1991.
Negotiation refers to a process of communication in which the parties aim to influence each other's decisions. A negotiator's ability to exert influence depends upon the combined total of a variety of factors. These include knowledge about the people and interests involved, a good working relationship, and having a good alternative to a negotiated settlement.
Negotiation Theory and Practice. Cambridge, MA: Program on Negotiation Books, January 1, 1991.
This collection of essays is a resource text for students of negotiation, either professional or lay. It will be of interest to those who seek a better understanding of the theory and practice of negotiation. This work is divided into nine topic sections. Each section addresses its topic via a set of edited articles from notable authors in the field. Click here for more info.
Lewicki, Roy J., David Saunders and John Minton. Negotiation, 3rd Edition. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin-McGraw Hill, 1999.
This is a comprehensive textbook on the conflict resolution process of negotiation. It covers a multitude of aspects of negotiation including fundamentals such as negotiation's different forms and the associated tactics. It discusses various subprocesses of negotiation and different contexts in which negotiation may occur. Lastly, it includes a chapter on how to deal with particularly difficult negotiations. Click here for more info.
Pruitt, Dean G. "Strategic Choice in Negotiation." In Negotiation Theory and Practice. Edited by Rubin, Jeffrey Z. and J. William Breslin, eds. Cambridge: The Program on Negotiation at Harvard, 1991.
Pruitt discusses four basic negotiation strategies, factors which affect the choice of strategy, and how the choice of strategy affects the negotiation's outcome. He distinguishes between joint problem solving and positional bargaining in particular.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Final Offer . Directed and/or Produced by: Gunnarsson, Sturla. California Newsreel. 1985.
This film takes a look at the different strategies union bargainers used during negotiations with General Motors. Click here for more info.
The Strange Demise of Jim Crow . Directed and/or Produced by: Berman, David. California Newsreel. 1998.
This film examines a number of different negotiation strategies that were used by civil rights proponents in their efforts to desegregate the South. Click here for more info.
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