R. Scott Appleby, John M. Regan Jr. Director of the Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies and Professor of History at University of Notre Dame, describes a recent UN conference on religion and tolerance.
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Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) have become increasingly prominent both in facilitating conflict resolution between states, but also in dealing with intractable conflicts within states. They serve a number of basic functions that enhance the possibility of cooperation. Created after World War I, the League of Nations was an early attempt to systematize third party mediation in international conflict. However, it proved too weak because important states did not join, which limited its ability to function. After World War II, the United Nations was created and, although it worked better than the League of Nations, the Cold War impeded its effectiveness for many years. Following the end of the Cold War, the UN has taken on new roles, and regional organizations around the world have also become more active. Growing activism from these organizations, however, does not mean that they operate flawlessly. This essay will briefly review the general purpose of IGOs in minimizing interstate conflict and then proceed to discuss their expanded roles in dealing with the internal conflicts of sovereign states.
General Issues
Intergovernmental organizations are constructed by states to facilitate cooperation.[1] The primary utility of IGOs lies in providing states with a forum which they can use to negotiate conflicts.[2] IGOs are also useful to states in a number of additional ways.
- First, by providing a forum for discussion, they make it less costly for states to discuss issues with one another.
- Second, IGOs often serve as information providers. The enhanced transparency helps to minimize misperceptions.
- Third, IGOs help to facilitate issue linkages, which may facilitate cooperation.
- Fourth, IGOs help allow states to take a long-term perspective, which makes them less concerned about immediate payoffs.
- Fifth, the multilateral nature of IGOs lends an air of impartiality that enhances their effectiveness.[3]
United Nations
Clearly, the most prominent IGO involved in conflict resolution is the United Nations (UN). The UN became the primary venue for diffusing international conflict in the post-World War II period. The growing role of the United Nations is internal, rather than international, conflict in the 1990s resulted from a curious interpretation of its own charter, which has exposed internal contradictions within the charter itself. Central to the UN contradiction is the contrast between the UN's support for national sovereignty and self-determination, and its involvement in the internal conflicts of other nations.
For instance, the UN Charter's Chapter VI gives the UN a number of mechanisms for facilitating conflict resolution, namely fact-finding, good offices, conciliation, mediation, and negotiation. Additionally, Chapter VII provides the basis for the use of coercion and force to maintain peace and security. Finally, Chapter VIII encourages activism on the part of regional organizations in bringing about peace. The UN possesses an unparalleled collection of agencies to address various aspects of conflict and humanitarian situations.
"First Generation" UN Activities
The UN's mission has, in fact, changed dramatically in the past decade. Prior to this period, the role of the UN was much more limited. The UN became involved in supporting transitions, namely decolonization processes, early on. The first UN transitional authority mission was in Dutch West New Guinea in 1962-63. However, the unfavorable experience in the Congo in 1960-64 made the UN reluctant to take on other such multifunctional operations, as it was not fully prepared to provide the central authority that was needed.[4] Throughout most of its history, the UN's mission in maintaining peace typically involved interposing its forces between two states that had willingly agreed to the UN presence. However, these missions did not so much resolve the conflict as to often freeze it in place, perhaps prolonging it in the long run.[5] UN Missions rarely created the conditions necessary for peace. What is more, the Cold War standoff between the Soviet Union and United States was reflected in the UN Security Council. As a result, UN involvement was often not forthcoming due to broader superpower politics.
As changes began to take place in the Soviet Union, much hope was raised that the UN would take a more active role in the world. Established in 1988, the United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan (UNGOMAP) signaled a new direction for the UN, as its mission was to monitor the implementation of a political settlement. Aside from the changing global political climate that was making Security Council cooperation more likely, mission successes helped to build confidence within the UN. An important turning point was the United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) in Namibia, which was established in 1989 to aid South Africa in facilitating Namibia's transition to independence. The mission gave the UN experience in guiding a transition process as well as preparing for and conducting elections. Another significant action was the 1992-3 UN mission in Cambodia (UNTAC), which was much more extensive and challenging. One of the main problems with this mission was that local authorities were resistant and the UN could not enforce its will. The UN mandate in Somalia ran into problems because it was predicated on the existence of a centralized authority that did not exist.
Second and Third Generation Missions
Subsequent UN operations have gone in many new and interesting directions. Table 1 summarizes UN missions since the beginning of the 1990s. Some are so-called first-generation missions, such as monitoring the demilitarized zone between Iraq and Kuwait. Others are second and third-generation missions, which have been much more involved with internal conflict resolution and peacebuilding. These missions have ranged from supervising ceasefires within member states and delivering humanitarian supplies to helping transitions toward independence and democracy by overseeing implementation of comprehensive peace accords, institution building, and conducting elections.
Second generation missions are characterized by UN involvement in guiding peace settlements among combatants in civil conflict who have willingly entered into negotiation.[6] Third generation missions, by contrast, involve interposing the UN in the midst of ongoing conflicts. These third-generation operations were prompted by the resurgence of ethnic and cultural conflict suppressed by the Cold War. These missions have been launched where peace does not exist, but where international will exists to support humanitarian assistance while attempts are made to find a political solution to the conflict. Although efforts have focused on humanitarian relief rather than brokering a comprehensive settlement, the lack of central authority that often accompanies these situations has led the UN to become more deeply involved in internal conflicts, to the point of providing an interim civilian administration in Kosovo.
| Table 1: UN Missions 1990-2000s | | 1991-Present | UN Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM) | Monitor demilitarized zone in Iraq | | 1991-5 | UN Angola Verification Mission II (UNAVEM II) | Help implement peace accord | | 1991-5 | UN Observer Mission in El Salvador (ONUSAL) | Peace verification, election monitoring | | 1991-Present | UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) | Implement ceasefire, conduct referendum | | 1991-2 | UN Advance Mission in Cambodia (UNAMIC) | Prepare way for UNTAC | | 1992-5 | UN Protection Force Yugoslavia (UNPROFOR) | Humanitarian relief, monitoring | | 1992-3 | UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) | Implement peace accord | | 1992-3 | UN Operation in Somalia I (UNOSOM I) | Humanitarian relief, monitor ceasefire | | 1992-4 | UN Operation in Mozambique (ONUMOZ) | Oversee peace accord | | 1993-5 | UN Operation in Somalia II (UNOSOM II) | Humanitarian relief, institution building | | 1993-4 | UN Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda (UNOMUR) | Monitor border | | 1993-Present | UN Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) | Monitor ceasefire of civil war | | 1993-7 | UN Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) | Monitor ceasefire of civil war | | 1993-6 | UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) | Aid transition | | 1993-6 | UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) | Humanitarian relief, monitor ceasefire | | 1994 | UN Aouzou Strip Observer Group (UNASOG) | Monitor Chad-Libyan border | | 1994-2000 | UN Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT) | Monitor ceasefire of civil war | | 1995-7 | UN Angola Verification Mission III (UNAVEM III) | Humanitarian relief, monitor ceasefire | | 1995-6 | UN Confidence Restoration Operation in Croatia (UNCRO) | Monitor ceasefire of civil war | | 1995-9 | UN Preventive Deployment Force Macedonia (UNPREDEP) | Prevent conflict from spreading | | 1995-Present | UN Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNMIBH) | Implement peace accord, humanitarian relief | | 1996-8 | UN Transitional Administration for E. Slavonia, Baranja, W. Sirmium (UNTAES) | Manage integration of regions into Croatia | | 1996-Present | UN Mission of Observers in Prevlaka (UNMOP) | Monitor Croat-Yugoslav border | | 1996-7 | UN Support Mission in Haiti (UNSMIH) | Institution building | | 1997 | UN Verification Mission in Guatemala (MINUGUA) | Monitor peace accord | | 1997-9 | UN Observer Mission in Angola (MONUA) | Monitor peace accord | | 1997 | UN Transition Mission in Haiti (UNTMIH) | Conduct election, institution building | | 1997-2000 | UN Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (MIPONUH) | Training, institution building | | 1998-2000 | UN Mission in the Central African Republic (MINURCA) | Monitor ceasefire of civil conflict | | 1998-9 | UN Observer Mission in Sierra Leone (UNOMSIL) | Monitor ceasefire of civil war | | 1999-Present | UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) | Monitor ceasefire, administration | | 1999-Present | UN Mission in Sierra Leone (UNAMSIL) | Monitor peace accord | | 1999-2002 | UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) | Oversee transition to independence | | 1999-Present | UN Organization Mission in DRC (MONUC) | Monitor ceasefire of civil war | | 2000-Present | UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) | Monitor border, ceasefire | | 2002-Present | UN Mission of Support in East Timor (UNMISET) | Administrative assistance | | Source: http://www.un.org |
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Under the leadership of Boutros Boutros-Ghali and Kofi Annan, the office of the UN Secretary-General has become more active in mediation efforts around the world. It has done so with the help of assistants to the Secretary-General as well as other special representatives. Despite being formally at the service of the General Assembly and Security Council, the Secretary-General has significant discretionary power. The Secretary-General has used his authority to engage in diplomacy, acting as mediator and authorizing provisional missions ahead of Security Council authorization. Unfortunately, although the Security Council remains the primary actor for the maintenance of international peace and security, its record during the 1990s indicates that the UN often reacts to crises, rather than acting to prevent crises. With its independent stature, the Secretary-General's office has the potential to shape the nature of debates regarding preventive action and to forward the cause of peace by being aggressive in drawing the attention of the Security Council to specific cases requiring preventive action.[7] This goal has been aided by new initiatives, including the so-called Friends of the Secretary-General, which refers to informal, ad hoc multilateral diplomatic channels used to support initiatives by the Secretary-General.
Regardless of what role the Secretary-General's office is able to play, second and third generation missions require more active management on the part of the Security Council. The unique authority and power of the Security Council also leaves it with disproportionate responsibility for responding to crises. The challenge posed by second and third generation missions is that they require long-term commitments. Throughout the 1990s, there generally was great enthusiasm for the UN to take upon itself these new roles. However, what has been less reliable is commitment on behalf of Member States to increase contributions and support institutional change to allow the United Nations to conduct the peacekeeping and peacebuilding missions that have been asked of it. What is more, Member States must also recognize that the possibility of encountering violence is real, and be determined to confront violent situations.[8] In the post-Cold War period, the UN has had mixed success in such missions. The determining factor has not been the UN itself but rather the commitment of Security Council members and the nature of the conflict itself.[9] In situations where all sides of the conflict were interested in resolution and resources were available to see the mission through, the UN has been remarkably successful.
After the UN's experiences in the early 1990s, it became apparent that the traditional mode of UN peacekeeping was not effective in new contexts. The nature of these more recent missions was that UN troops were being inserted into conflicts where fighting was still underway. To prevent conflicts from spreading further, some have advocated the creation of a rapid reaction force,[10] but these complex multifunctional forces suffer from several shortcomings. They are often poorly planned, a factor that is more crucial as missions become more complex. Organizational structure is often weak because conflicting interests exist within the force. In addition, civil and military roles are not clearly linked. The UN also remains significantly dependent upon the resources and expertise of Member States. All of these problems are compounded by the fact that missions are fundamentally dependent upon the goodwill of locals as well as Member States.
Peacebuilding Missions
Peacebuilding missions in the 1990s are broad and varied in content. Generally speaking, some or all of the following may be incorporated into a particular peacebuilding mission: disarming parties and restoring order, destroying weapons, repatriating refugees, training police, monitoring elections, enhancing efforts to protect human rights, improving and expanding political participation, and strengthening and reforming government institutions. These operations, however, have been criticized on a number of fronts.[11]
- First, it is important to identify which services are better targeted to national elites versus local leaders, a step that is sometimes neglected.
- Second, there is disagreement as to whether economic or psychological and social factors should have more emphasis in UN missions.
- Third, it is argued that missions would be more effective if they were extended for a much longer time frame.
- Fourth, it has been said that greater care must be taken in determining who the intervening actor should be.
- Fifth, some argue that peacebuilding is a Western concept and question the applicability of these efforts in non-Western contexts.
- Sixth, and finally, is the debate as to what role, if any, force can and should play in UN missions.
Summarizing the situation, Malan argues:
In certain circumstances, it seems as if the UN will be doomed if it does act, and damned if it does not act. At the heart of this dilemma is the apparent contradiction of pursuing both humanitarian and political goals in a single mission. While this great variety of actors compounds the problem of co-ordination within UN peace missions, humanitarian action has also become the substitute for UN peacekeeping when conditions are not perceived as right for the deployment of troops.[12]
The Role of Regional Organizations
Recognizing that the UN lacked resources and local expertise to fully deal with new types of missions, Boutros-Ghali led an effort to give primacy to regional organizations in dealing with many conflicts. During the Cold War, regional organizations served as a substitute for the UN when superpower conflict hampered the functioning of the Security Council. The current trend appears to be that the UN seems willing to hand over responsibility for peace and security to any form of "coalition of the willing." The UN itself reached this conclusion in a recent report, saying:
The United Nations does not have, at this point in its history, the institutional capacity to conduct military enforcement measures under Chapter VII (of the UN Charter). Under present conditions, ad hoc Member States coalitions of the willing offer the most effective deterrent to aggression or to the escalation or spread of an ongoing conflict ... The Organisation still lacks the capacity to implement rapidly and effectively decisions of the Security Council calling for the dispatch of peacekeeping operations in crisis situations. Troops for peacekeeping missions are in some cases not made available by Member States or made available under conditions that constrain effective response. Peacemaking and human rights operations, as well as peacekeeping operations, also lack a secure financial footing, which has a serious impact on the viability of such operations.[13]
We may be seeing a division of labor emerging where police services become the domain of UN peace operations, while military operations are left largely to regional organizations or ad hoc arrangements. This fact is unlikely to alleviate concerns that missions often lack a sense of unity.[14] It does seem necessary for IGOs to take collective responsibility,[15] as the advantage of the UN is that it is a truly global voice and possesses a highly comprehensive set of institutions. At the same time, however, the developing world would like a clearer say in UN decision-making, and coordinating with regional organizations may be the most effective way for them to gain such influence.[16] Additionally, regional organizations are superior in being more familiar with local conditions, culture, and actors. They benefit from lower costs and faster response. Some argue that regional action often proves less objectionable because it is less likely the action will be seen as setting a precedent.[17] At the regional level, however, politics can lead to favoring one side over another. This perception often creates reluctance on the part of combatants to accept outside intrusion. Regional hegemons are also better able to manipulate more localized organizations.[18] What is more, most regional organizations are even more resource poor than the UN is, and the political willpower to act often is missing.[19] It may be true that regional organizations are most useful on the civilian side of peace operations, providing, for example, election or human monitors, in cooperation with the UN.[20] However, the ability of different regional organizations to respond to conflict varies a great deal.
Regional organizations have both expanded in number and, because many often overlap in a given territory, have increasingly begun to coordinate their activities. And, since the end of the Cold War, examples abound of regional organizations expanding their capacity to take on a mediation role:
- The Organization of African Unity (OAU) -- now the African Union (AU) -- added a section to its Secretariat to aid in conflict resolution,
- The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) has established a new mediation role.
- Within Africa, the Inter-Governmental Agency on Drought and Development (IGADD) in the Horn of Africa,
- the Southern African Development Community (SADC),
- the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and
- the West African Economic Community (CEAO) has all mediated disputes within their respective regions.
- NATO and ECOMOG (ECOWAS Peace Monitoring Group) are two groups that have engaged in peace enforcement.
OSCE
The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) has gone farthest in working to construct common norms. It has been unique amongst most regional organizations in engaging in preventive diplomacy and peacebuilding operations. [21] What is more, it has established local offices to facilitate communication and provide advice.
Therefore, among all regional organizations, it has been able to minimize potential infighting amongst the membership as to how to deal with problems. The OSCE has had modest goals and significant success in handling ethnopolitical conflicts in Eastern Europe.[22]
OAU/AU
The Organization of African Unity (OAU) which morphed into the African Union (AU), on the other hand, has had limited success in dealing with regional conflict, as members are very sensitive about the protection of sovereignty. Despite the creation of new powers and a formal dispute mechanism, the OAU/AU has been largely ineffective in managing African conflicts such as those in Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and Comoros. The organization has been preoccupied with efforts to resolve existing conflicts rather than trying to foresee and prevent new ones. Despite the creation of the mechanism, the OAU/AU has been an active but peripheral actor in most cases.[23] The UN and sub-regional organizations like the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Southern African Development Community (SADC) have often taken the lead in managing conflicts in countries such as Sierra Leone, Liberia, Lesotho, and DRC. The AU's marginal role thus far can be attributed to it being new and inexperienced in the field of conflict management, the sheer overwhelming scope of conflict across the continent, and longstanding financial, organizational, and mandate issues from the pre-1993 era.[24] Other regional organizations are working to enhance their ability to respond. For example, ECOWAS and SADC are working to develop early warning capabilities.
Other Regional Organizations
Other examples exhibit mixed results. The Organization of American States (OAS) generally does not interfere in the internal workings of members, but has worked in conjunction with the UN to promote conflict resolution. The Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) has sought to avoid involvement in members' internal affairs, but has developed a capacity for consensus building. Since 1990, ECOWAS has been active in West Africa. Since July 1992, Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) have been active in Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Tajikistan. The European Union was paralyzed by internal disagreement on how to respond to Yugoslavia, and NATO proved useful there when the UN Security Council could not agree on a course of action. It was NATO's Implementation Force (IFOR) that took over from the over-extended UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) in the former Yugoslavia at the end of 1995 that has brought regional peace operations to the forefront. NATO's mission in Bosnia and the Italian-led OSCE operation in Albania also served as models of regional organizations stepping in where the UN lacks the capability or the will to act.[25]
[1] There is debate within international relations as to the utility of international organizations beyond the powerful state that backs it with some seeing them driven by a dominant power, or hegemon, and others as the result of reasoned self-interested bargaining by states. See, for example, Keohane, Robert O. 1984. After hegemony: cooperation and discord in the world political economy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, Mearsheimer, John J. 1995. The False Promise of International Institutions. International Security 19 (3):5-49.
[2] See, for example, Oye, Kenneth A., ed. 1986. Cooperation under anarchy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
[3] Doyle 2001, p. 546.
[4] Chopra, Jarat. 1995. UN civil governance-in-trust. In Weiss, Thomas G., Ed. The United Nations and civil wars: Emerging global issues. Boulder , Colo., L. Rienner Publishers.
[5] Ratner, Steven R. 1995. The New UN Peacekeeping. New York: St. Martin's Press.
[6] The League of Nations missions in the Saar Basin and Danzig could be considered precursors to second generation missions, Ratner 1995, op, cit.
[7] Cater, Charles K., & Wermester, Karin. 2000.From Reaction to Prevention: Opportunities for the UN System in the New Millennium http://www.ipacademy.org/Publications/Reports/Research/PublRepoReseUNSyPrint.htm.
[8] Durch, William and Caroline Earle. 2000.Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations. August 2000, UN report A/55/305--S/2000/809, http://www.stimson.org/fopo/pdf/fullreport.pdf.
[9] Miall, Hugh, Oliver Ramsbotham, & Tom Woodhouse. 1999. Contemporary conflict resolution: the prevention, management, and transformation of deadly conflicts. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
[10] Mackinlay, John. 1995. Military responses to complex emergencies. In Weiss, Thomas G., Ed. The United Nations and civil wars: Emerging global issues. Boulder , Colo., L. Rienner Publishers.
[11] Miall, Hugh, Oliver Ramsbotham, & Tom Woodhouse. 1999. Contemporary conflict resolution: the prevention, management, and transformation of deadly conflicts. Malden, MA: Blackwell, pp. 198-200.
[12] Malan, 1998.
[13] UN Report on Reform, released 16 July 1997, http://www.un.org/reform/track2/part2.htm.
[14] Malan, 1998.
[15] Peck, Connie. 2001. The Role of Regional Organizations. In Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall, eds. Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press. Pp. 561-583.
[16] Refashioning the Dialogue: Regional Perspectives on the Brahimi Report on UN Operations http://www.ipacademy.org/PDF_Reports/REFASHIONING.pdf Organization: International Peace Academy (IPA).
[17] Wedgwood, Ruth. 1996. Regional and Subregional Organizations in International Conflict Management. In Chester A. Crocker & Fen Osler Hampson with Pamela Aall, eds. Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace.
[18] Miall, Hugh, Oliver Ramsbotham, and Tom Woodhouse. 1999. Contemporary conflict resolution: the prevention, management, and transformation of deadly conflicts. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
[19] Fortna , Virginia Page. 1993. Regional Organizations and Peacekeeping. Occasional Paper 11, Henry L. Stimson Center. June. Wedgwood, Ruth. 1996. Regional and Subregional Organizations in International Conflict Management. In Chester A. Crocker & Fen Osler Hampson with Pamela Aall, eds. Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace.
[20] Fortna , Virginia Page. 1993. Regional Organizations and Peacekeeping. Occasional Paper 11, Henry L. Stimson Center. June.
[21] Peck, Connie. 2001. The Role of Regional Organizations. In Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall, eds. Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press. Pp. 561-583.
[22] Troebst, Stefan. 1998.Ethnopolitical Conflicts in Eastern Europe and the OSCE: An Interim Appraisal. http://www.ecmi.de/doc/download/brief_1.pdf.
[23] Muyangwa, Monde, and Vogt, Margaret A. Assessment of the OAU Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, and Resolution, 1993-2000. http://www.ipacademy.org/Publications/Reports/Africa/PublRepoAfriAssessPrint.htm.
[24] Muyangwa, Monde, and Vogt, Margaret A. Assessment of the OAU Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, and Resolution, 1993-2000. http://www.ipacademy.org/Publications/Reports/Africa/PublRepoAfriAssessPrint.htm.
[25] Mark Malan. Peacekeeping in the New Millennium: Towards 'Fourth Generation' Peace Operations' African Security Review Vol 7, No. 3, 1998. http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/7No3/Malan.html.
Use the following to cite this article:
Brahm, Eric. "Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: March 2005 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/role_igo/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Malan, Mark. "Peacekeeping in the New Millennium: Towards 'Fourth Generation' Peace Operations?." African Security Review, Vol. 7, No. 3 , 1998
Available at: http://www.iss.co.za/Pubs/ASR/7No3/Malan.html.
The aim of this article is to provide a simple and broad outline of recent trends in international peace operations. In particular, attention is focused on the expansion and subsequent contraction of UN missions, the humanitarian imperative, and the trend towards specialization and delegation - with special reference to the emergent place and role of civilian police in modern peace operations.
Santiso, Carlos. Promoting Democratic Governance and Preventing the Recurrence of Conflict: The Role of the United Nations Development Programme in Post Conflict Peace-Building. University of Sussex: Institute of Development Studies.
Available at: http://www.eldis.org/fulltext/promoting.pdf.
Abstract: This article assesses the significance, promises and dilemmas of the governance agenda for [the United Nations Development Programme] and analyses the scope, promptings, and institutionalisation of democracy and governance programmes within UNDP, using Central America as a case study. It argues that the future of UNDP democracy assistance will largely depend on how successful it is at resolving the inherent tensions between democracy promotion and national sovereignty, while retaining its multilateral approach to peace and democracy.
Klingebiel, Stephan. "The OECD, World Bank and International Monetary Fund: Development Activities in the Crisis Prevention and Conflict Management Sphere." , 2001
Available at: http://www.idrc.ca/uploads/user-S/10596769151engl-oecd-imf.pdf.
Whatever the development policy options, international actors can in principle take action in four different fields with a view to preventing crises and managing conflicts: policy and diplomacy; security policy; emergency and refugee aid; and reconstruction aid and development cooperation. This paper considers three international development institutions operating predominantly in the fields of emergency and refugee aid, and reconstruction aid and development cooperation.
Colletta, Nat J. and Doug Pearce. The World Bank, Demobilization, and Social Reconstruction. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
Available at: http://wwics.si.edu/subsites/ccpdc/pubs/light/14.pdf.
This article first details the objectives of the World Bank's Demobilization and Reintegration Program (DRP) that "focused on public expenditure and reallocation and the shifting of scarce financial resources away form defense to the social and economic sectors." It next critiques this policy and describes the key lessons that have been gleaned from the World Bank's efforts to reintegrate ex-combatants into civil society.
Offline (Print) Sources
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This book asserts that a hegemonic state need not be present for international cooperation to take place. The answer is found in international institutions, which serve as a venue to provide information, reduce uncertainty, and provide issue linkages to allow cooperation to occur without the enforcement of a dominant power. The work deals extensively with the formation of international regimes such as the international monetary regime, the international trade regime, and the international oil regime.
Hare, Paul J. "Angola: The Lusaka Peace Process." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
After violence resumed after the 1992 elections in Angola, the international community again played a central role in bringing the parties back to the negotiating table. This chapter describes the international effort to establish the Lusaka peace process and describes its principles.
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This chapter discusses the role of the United Nations, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), regional powers, and the United States in bringing about peace in Cambodia.
Kefford, Stuart and Paul Eavis. "Conflict Prevention and the European Union: a Potential Yet to Be Fully Realized." In Searching for Peace in Europe and Eurasia: An Overview of Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities. Edited by van de Veen, Hans, Juliette Verhoeven and Paul van Tongeren, eds. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
"Southeast Europe and the countries of Central Asia are becoming increasingly important economically and politically for the European Union (EU). Addressing instability and underdevelopment in these regions has now become a central issue for the EU. Important programs to address instability and promote development are already in place in both regions, but the EU's role in peacebuilding is yet to be fully realized."
Oye, Kenneth A., ed. Cooperation Under Anarchy. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1986.
Drawing on a diverse set of historical cases of security and economic affairs, the chapters in the book provide a unified explanation of the incidence of cooperation and conflict as well as suggesting strategies to promote the emergence of cooperation.
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In this chapter, The UN Secretary-General's representative at the peace talks describes the role of the United Nations in ending the civil war.
Aall, Pamela, Lt. Col. Daniel Miltenberger and Thomas G. Weiss. Guide to IGOs, NGOs, and the Military in Peace and Relief Operations. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, November 1, 2000.
This book explains the roles, organizational cultures, and structures of inter-governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and militaries. It argues that the increased understanding of the three basic types of international peace building actors offered in the book will assist people in one sort of organization to understand and work with people in other sorts of organizations during peace operations. Click here for more info.
McDougall, Barbara. "Haiti: Canada's Role in the OAS." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter describes the OAS' first effort to intervene on behalf of a member state to restore democracy.
Ajello, Adlo. "Mozambique: Implementation of the 1992 Peace Agreement." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
This chapter, written by the UN special representative to Mozambique, describes the effort to implement the 1992 peace accord.
Ekeus, Rolf. "New Challenges for the United Nations." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, July 1, 2001.
Outlines four major challenges facing the UN in the new century: a crisis of identity, crisis of confidence after a number of setbacks, financial crisis, and rapid changes wrought by globalization.
Wedgwood, Ruth. "Regional and Subregional Organizations in International Conflict Management." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources or and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Hampson, Fen Osler and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1996.
This chapter discusses the evolving role of regional organizations in maintaining international peace and security. In light of their growing role in conflict management, it discusses the strengths and weaknesses of regional organizations in relation to each other and the UN. It also assesses their performance and discusses reform efforts.
Fortna, Virginia Page. "Regional Organizations and Peacekeeping." Occasional Paper 11, Henry L. Stimson Center , June 1, 1993.
With the United Nations lacking the resources to deal with every crisis, it has responded in part by partnering with regional organizations. However, regional organizations, with the exception of NATO, themselves are not well-prepared to handle such responsibility. Reviews the shortcomings of regional organizations in crises and suggests steps that might be taken.
Bertram, Eva. "Reinventing Governments: The Promise and Perils of United Nations Peace Building." The Journal of Conflict Resolution 39:3, September 1995.
This paper discusses the mixed results of United Nations peace building efforts since about 1990. The article notes successes in El Salvador, Mozambique, Cambodia, and Namibia, but also questions whether the UN can overcome some key dilemmas and constraints that it faces when it comes to peace building.
Roberts, Adam. "The Crisis in UN Peacekeeping." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources or and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.
"This article addresses four main questions: 1) What were the essential features of UN peacekeeping up to 1987? 2) How has the character of UN peacekeeping changed since 1988, and what are the consequences of hte changes? 3: In what kinds of crises can UN peacekeeping usefully become involved, and in what kinds is it inappropriate? 4) What are the issues that the UN and its member-states need to address?"
Mearsheimer, John J. "The False Promise of International Institutions." International Security 19:3, 1995.
This article criticizes liberal conceptions of the utility of international institutions. Rather, Mearscheimer argues that they function because they are in the interest of dominant powers to do so.
Ratner, Steve R. The New UN Peacekeeping: Building Peace in Lands of Conflict after the Cold War. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995.
This work attempts to understand the United Nations' new approach to peacekeeping as it has come to be in the post-Cold War era, namely intervention into war-torn, yet sovereign states. The work views peacekeeping as an instrument of international organization and law. The in-depth analysis compares and contrasts the new approach with the old, outlining the reinvented purposes of peacekeeping. The work includes chapters on specific UN peacekeeping missions, Cambodia in particular.
Zellner, Wolfgang. "The OSCE: Uniquely Qualified for a Conflict-Prevention Role." In Searching for Peace in Europe and Eurasia: An Overview of Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities. Edited by van Tongeren, Paul, Juliette Verhoeven and Hans van de Veen, eds. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
"The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe has been one of the world's fastest growing international governmental organizations in field operations, staff, and budget. This chapter deals with two questions: First, it asks which political qualities enable the OSCE to perform crisis-prevention tasks and examines the limits of the organization. Second, it gives an overview of the most important prevention instruments, namely the high commissioner on national minorities and OSCE field activities."
Sereseres, Caesar. "The Regional Peacekeeping Role of the Organization of American States: Nicaragua, 1990-1993." In Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1996.
This chapter chronicles the peacekeeping role of the Organization of American States in Nicaragua. The experience highlights both the strengths and weaknesses of regional organizations in dealing with these types of issues.
Peck, Connie. "The Role of Regional Organizations in Preventing and Resolving Conflict." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001.
This chapter reviews some of the more promising mechanisms various regional organizations have created to prevent, resolve, and manage regional conflict. It also discusses how they fit into the broader global governance web of institutions.
van der Stoel, Max. "The Role of the OSCE High Commissioner in Conflict Prevention." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington, D.C.: USIP Press, 1999.
Describes how the OSCE has developed institutional capability to achieve a comprehensive approach to security.
Anstee, Margaret J. "The United Nations in Angola: Post-Bicesse Implementation." In Herding Cats: Multiparty Mediation in a Complex World. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, 1999.
The author, the UN Secretary-General's special representative in Angola, describes the complex multilateral effort to bring an end to the civil war in Angola.
Oudraat, Chantal de Jonge. "UN Sanction Regimes and Violent Conflict." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, September 2001.
This chapter examines the past effectiveness of multilateral economic sanctions in preventing, managing, and resolving violent conflict, their associated shortcomings and future prospects.
Reifschneider, Jennifer, Paul R. Hensel and Paul F. Diehl. "United Nations Intervention and Recurring Conflict." International Organization 50:4, 1996.
This article examines the dramatic post-Cold War increase in the number and forms of United Nations intervention into ongoing conflicts. The research presented in this paper attempts to analyze the longer-term impacts of UN intervention on the relationships between the antagonists and the potential for renewed violence in the future.
Doyle, Michael W. "War Making, Peace Making, and the United Nations." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001.
Reviews the UN's track record in the post-Cold War world. Suggests that, while reform is needed, the UN is an important contributor to conflict resolution. Delineates different generations of peace operations and different types of transitional authority. Evaluates the use of war in peace making.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Online (Web) Sources
Karl, Terry. "Alarms and Responses: A Comparative Study of Contemporary International Efforts to Anticipate and Prevent Violent Conflicts - The Case of El Salvador." Conflict Early Warning Systems (CEWS).
Available at: Click here for more info.
This essay gives specifics about the El Salvador peace process, including the role the United Nations played.
Boutros-Ghali, Boutros. An Agenda for Peace: Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peacekeeping. United Nations.
Available at: http://www.un.org/Docs/SG/agpeace.html.
Lays out vision for the UN's role in post-Cold War world. Consists of preventive diplomacy, peace enforcement, peace making, peacekeeping, and post-conflict peacebuilding.
Posthumus, Bram. "Angola: War Without End?." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article details the history of the Angolan conflict, and the processes that have been used to manage it. Much of the piece discusses the efforts of various United Nations' initiatives in Angola, as well as attempts by other NGOs to bring peace to the nation.
Havermans, Jos. "Central African Republic: Ethnic Strife in a Democratic Setting." , 2000
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the struggle of the Central African Republic and its ethnic strife. The paper details efforts at peacemaking, which have primarily been led by the United Nations delegates and peacekeeping troops.
Slim, Randa M. "Central Asia: The Ferghana Valley: In the Midst of a Host of Crises." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This paper discusses the history of conflict in the Ferghana Valley of central Asia. The conflicts there have deep historical roots, and are now primarily over borders and resources. The valley is divided between Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan, with each side possessing ethno-nationalist motivations. The paper discusses hthe variety of crises faced by these nations and how this tense situation might be managed.
Posthumus, Bram. "Chad and Libya: Good Neighbors, Enemies, Brothers - But Never Trusting Friends." , 1999
Available at: Click here for more info.
This is an article about the relationship between Chad and Libya. It details the decades-long history of conflicts between the two nations and the various conflict management steps that have been taken to control them.
Kruhonja, Katarina, Ivan Stanic and Milan Ivanovic. "Croatia: Struggling with Unresolved Postwar Issues." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article outlines the dynamics of the war in Croatia and examines the post-conflict situation, namely the difficult transition from communism to democracy. The authors identify many unresolved issues that continue to cause problems such as the prosecution of war criminals, the return of refugees, the protection of minority rights, and reconciliation.
Lieten, Kristoffel. "India: Jammu and Kashmir: Half a Century of Conflict." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article outlines the key events in the history of India and Pakistan's conflict over Kashmir and Jammu, focusing heavily on developments in the region since 2002. The paper details the many attempts at resolving the conflict over several decades, all of which have failed in one way or another.
Broughton, Sally and Eran Fraenkel. "Macedonia: Extreme Challenges for the "Model" Multiculturalism." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article describes the dynamics of the crisis in Macedonia, which flared up in the spring of 2001. Outbreaks of violence are directly related to nationalistic sentiments and distrust between Macedonians and Albanians.
Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations.
Available at: http://www.un.org/peace/reports/peace_operations/.
This report was written up by an independent panel that was put together to analyze the United Nations' track record in meeting its mission "to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war." The report finds that UN peace operations show the United Nations is not succeeeding very well at its mission.
Lakicevic, Dragan, Maria Teresa Mauro and Zoran Lutovac. "Serbia: A New Beginning Taking Shape." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article examines security challenges in ethnically hetereogeneous regions of Serbia in the difficult aftermath of the Milosevic era. The article discusses how the international community and NGOs are working to ease ethnic tensions in the region.
Rippon, Thomas J. and Stan Willow. "Sierra Leone: A Model for a Program for Action for a Culture of Peace." Journal of Peace and Conflict Resolution, Vol. 6, No. 1 , 2004
Available at: http://www.trinstitute.org/ojpcr/6_1ripwil.htm.
Sierra Leone is a nation-state that has experienced internal war and violence since 1991, precipitated by external economic forces and internal greed for resources and power. The purpose of this article is to examine the conflict in Sierra Leone within the context of UNESCO's Program for Action to ascertain if a sustainable culture of peace could be established with the implementation of the eight areas within the Program for Action.
Sierra Leone: Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration . Africa Regional Series.
Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/afr/findings/infobeng/infob81.pdf.
The conclusion of the Disarmament and Demobilization (D&D) of combatants from all warring parties in January 2002, marked the official end of the civil war in Sierra Leone. D&D was part of a larger disarmament,demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) program, implemented by the Government of Sierra Leone with the support
of the World Bank, together with other international institutions and NGOs. The experience of Sierra Leone shows how the Bank can play an important role in post-conflict transitions, complementing political and security efforts of client governments and the international community.
Slim, Randa M. and Faredun Hodizoda. "Tajikistan: From Civil War to Peacebuilding." , 2002
Available at: Click here for more info.
This article discusses the civil war in Tajikstan, which broke out soon after the nation declared its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. The majority of the article focuses on the successful peace process initiated by the United Nations that led to the signing of the General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan in 1997.
Offline (Print) Sources
"A Major Investment in Peace." In People Building Peace: 35 Inspiring Stories From Around the World. Edited by European Centre for Conflict Prevention, ed. Utrecht: European Centre for Conflict Prevention, 1999.
The chapter discusses the EU Peace Programme's important contribution to reinforcing progress in the Northern Ireland peace process. Also, it is suggested that this model might be useful for other circumstances where deep divisions exist and development has stagnated.
Miall, Hugh, Oliver Ramsbotham and Tom Woodhouse. Contemporary Conflict Resolution: The Prevention, Management and Transformations of Deadly Conflict. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, April 1, 1999.
This book gives statistics of deadly quarrels, theories and frameworks of conflict management, and causes and preventions of war. It also has case studies of Macedonia, Albania and Kosovo.
Doyle, Michael W., Ian Johnstone and Robert C. Orr. Keeping the Peace: Multidimensional UN Operations in Cambodia and El Salvador. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, September 1, 1997.
This book explores the new multidimensional role that the United Nations has played in peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding over the past few years. By examining the paradigm-setting cases of Cambodia and El Salvador, and drawing lessons from these UN "success stories", the book identifies more effective ways for the international community to address conflict in the post-Cold War era.
MacKinlay, John. "Military Responses to Complex Emergencies." In The United Nations and civil wars: Emerging global issues. Edited by Weiss, Thomas G., ed. Boulder CO: L. Rienner Publishers, 1995.
Reviews the role of military intervention in conflict resolution. Argues for the creation of a rapid reaction force.
Yost, David S. "NATO's Contributions to Conflict Management." In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict. Edited by Crocker, Chester A., Fen Osler Hampson and Pamela Aall, eds. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2001.
"This chapter begins with a brief discussion of NATO's origins, structure, and assets, which give it a unique standing among international security institutions. It then exxamines key distinctions between collective defense and collective security...and discusses their significance for the Alliance. These concepts help to explain NATO's transformation since 1990-91. They also set the scene for considering the implications of the Alliance's interventions in the Balkans..."
Paris, Roland. "Peacebuilding in Central America: Reproducing the Sources of Conflict?." , August 1, 2002.
This article discusses the United Nation's role in peacebuilding operations in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala in the 1990s. It addresses whether these missions merely reestablished long-standing conflicts.
Peck, Connie. Sustainable Peace: The Role of the UN and Regional Organizations. Rowman & Littlefield Publishing:
"This book argues that the most sustainable means of promoting peace within states is the development of good governance, which can address the root causes of conflict and meet basic human security needs. Good governance offers groups a "voice" in resolving grievances at an early stage before they grow into major problems, safeguards human rights, and promotes a fairer distribution of resources. The author suggests that the focus of good international and regional governance should be the promotion of more effective national and local governance, and she outlines the efforts of the United Nations, regional organizations-such as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organization of African Unity, and the Organization of American States-and NGOs, such as the Carter Center. The most successful approaches of these organizations could be applied through proposed Regional Centers for Sustainable Peace." Editorial Review
Alden, Chris. "The UN and the Resolution of Conflict in Mozambique." Journal of Modern African Studies 33:1, 1995.
The article details the United Nations' role in implementing the key provisions of the Mozambican peace agreement.
Chopra, Jarat. "UN civil governance-in-trust." In The United Nations and civil wars: Emerging global issues. Edited by Weiss, Thomas G., ed. Boulder, CO: L. Rienner Publishers, 1995.
Chapter reviews the UN's history in providing governance within states. Assesses the UN track record and suggests areas for improvement.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Kampuchea After Pol Pot. First Run Icarus Films. 1982.
This film documents the complexities involved in distributing aid in crisis situations. It centers on obstacles humanitarian aid organizations faced when they entered Kampuchea, Cambodia after the collapse of the Pol Pot regime.
Security Council . First Run Icarus Films. 1982.
The film reviews several United Nations Security Council cases involving disarmament and arms limitation agreements, security guarantees, deadlines, and sanctions. It explains the role formal intermediaries and elite leaders play in the enacting and enforcing of UN policies. Click here for more info.
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