Introduction
Dennis Sandole explains that importance of history, identity and emotion in many 'deep-rooted' or intractable conflicts.
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So much less tangible than the physical destruction of war, the effects of conflict on the psychology of individuals and a society are as profound as they are neglected. If the attitudes that lead to conflict are to be mitigated, and if it is taken that psychology drives attitudes and behaviors of individuals and groups, then new emphasis must be placed on understanding the social psychology of conflict and its consequences. The suffering and trauma that are the results of war need to be addressed and prioritised in plans for peace. Effective means for dealing with these less-visible consequences of violent conflict must be developed if a true and sustained peace is to be realised.
For a comprehensive understanding of conflict and conflict management, social psychology as a frame of analysis should be used as a complement to the political and economic analyses usually used. Economic analysis explains the underlying inequities and injustices that exist in conflicted societies, while political analysis contributes to understanding the nature and inadequacies of states, ideally leading to models of responsible and legitimate governance. Both the political and economic approaches are essential for understanding the root causes of violence, and for offering necessary perspectives on effective conflict management. Yet for a comprehensive analysis of conflict, social-psychological dimensions must also be understood and addressed. Social-psychological analysis, when combined with political and economic analyses, allows for deeper insights into conflict and conflict management.
Nancy Ferrell talks about the way in which people tend to devalue differences.
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Components of the Social-Psychological Dimension
Social psychology permeates all aspects of intractable conflict. While history, perceptions and identity are inherently present in the escalation of conflict, they are also intrinsic to managing conflict and contributing to a sustainable peace. Acknowledging history, building awareness, learning empathy, according legitimacy, and recognising fears are among the most powerful tools for building peace.
History
Any analysis of conflict requires learning its history, the progression of events which led to the eruption of violence. As groups or nations interact with each other, patterns of interaction develop over time. Repeated experience leads to the formation and solidification of beliefs and perceptions of self and others. While this can be a positively reinforcing process in which the relationship between the two parties is based on trust and cooperation, in situations of conflict such processes are largely negative. If the history shared between two nations is competitive -- either over resources or over power -- then the other party is viewed as a threat. Wars fought in the past will create a collective history, the loss and suffering transferred in collective memory from one generation to the next. When there is a history of domination of one party over the other, there is little basis for trust or cooperation. Each of these past experiences lays the foundation for interactions in the present and the future.
As history builds upon itself, individuals and societies mobilise against the negative other, and soon define themselves according to their opposition of that other. Continuing conflict or threats of conflict lead to the formation of vested interests, expressed in the various aspects of war, defense, and opposition. Each of these interests becomes an integral component of the conflict dynamic, as ending the conflict effectively threatens their own existence.
What Can Be Done: Acknowledging History
In the social-psychological analysis of conflict, emphasis is placed on the importance of acknowledging history. Previous wars fought, previous aggressions committed, or previous actions that led to the loss of trust are not easily forgotten. Denying these past realities does not remove them from history. On the contrary, denying claims rooted in history creates fear and insecurity, challenging the existence of other groups and nations, exacerbating tensions, and heightening conflict.
It is important to acknowledge the negative experiences and consequences of history between parties in order to reduce tensions. Tensions can thus be limited to contemporary issues over which control and change can be affected. Acknowledging the aspects of history in the national discourse, specifically its darker aspects, allows for at least the possibility of positive transformation, where lessons can be learned and new relationships built.
Perceptions
In relations between nations and groups, perceptions are formed by interactions over time. Values of and threats from others, power distribution, and resource control, each contribute to these perceptions. The realist school of international-relations theory describes conflict as a result of a shift in power and the display of relative strength. In social-psychological terms, it is the perception of power, rather than the actual possession of power, which is important. Power is most often perceived in military, economic or political terms. If these terms are perceived as zero-sum, it is likely that conflict will erupt or escalate. However, if the terms of conflict and their perception can be moved from zero-sum to positive sum, then options for conflict management are greatly augmented.
What Can Be Done: Learning Empathy
Morton Deutsch explains how "autistic hostility" contributes to intractability.
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Kelman's exposition of mirror image theory[1] describes how parties develop parallel images of the other, with self-perceptions largely positive and perceptions of the other mostly negative. Violence and aggression become associated with the other party while virtue and justice are qualities possessed by oneself or one's own group. Deutsch's folk theory of war, in which one side perceives itself as only good and the other side as only evil, can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where violence rapidly escalates.[2] In both cases, the best tools to counter the negative effects of mirror-imaging and the good-versus-evil dialectic is empathy, a capacity rarely found in the realm of international relations.
Perceptions are formed early in life, and unless otherwise challenged, continue to solidify. The danger with perceptions is that, while they are drawn from reality, over time they create reality: the self-fulfilling prophecy. Perceptions, however, are not perfect images of reality; through social experience, they can change. New perspectives can be learned, values and interests can be shared. Exchange programs and group workshops can be valuable opportunities to learn empathy, build trust, open communication, increase sensitivity, and augment perspectives and appreciation for the other.
Identity
Identity can be described as the norms, beliefs, practices, and traditions with which one engages one's environment. Self-perception underlies the notion of identity, a pivotal component of social-psychological analysis. Identity and perceptions of the self provide the lens through which one views others. Identity is not an immutable concept, rather, it forms and changes depending on the particular historical moment. Conceptions of identity influence the process of conflicts. Yet identity is still overlooked when attempting to understand the origins of conflict, or in planning its management.
What Can Be Done: Building Awareness
Eileen Babbitt describes an ICAR-based project that brought together high-level Israeli and Palestinian women in a long series of workshops starting in 1992 with the goal of getting a dialogue started.
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The mutability or adaptability of identity gives it vast potential as a tool for conflict management. While national identity can easily become a negative influence, it can just as easily be transformed to a positive impetus for peace. Intentional manipulation of any national identity should inspire wariness -- as exemplified with the rise of hyper-nationalist movements or of calls to genocide or "ethnic cleansing." Yet leaders and peacemakers can affect significant positive change through identity transformation. Increasing awareness of the self and supporting a more equitable perception of others can be facilitated through cross-cultural exchanges, or high-level and highly visible dialogues. Sharing of each group's unique history, traditions, and culture are all positive initiatives that mutually reinforce one's own and the other's identity.
Social Psychology in Negotiations
In negotiations, the importance of perceptions in terms of power distribution or relative positioning is key. Social-psychological dimensions -- perception in particular -- are key in even beginning negotiations. According to Zartman,[3] negotiations are usually only initiated -- and successful -- in certain "ripe" situations. These include:
- the occurrence of a recent or incipient national crisis,
- a change in the military situation, leading to the perception of a real and immediate threat of new or heightened violent conflict,
- the perception of a mutually hurting stalemate,
- a perception that continued violence is more costly than the negotiations themselves,
- a change in power to a more equitable distribution. If parties perceive that power is distributed more equitably, they are more likely to come to the negotiating table.
What Can Be Done: Recognising Fears and According Legitimacy
Parties naturally fear the compromises involved in attaining negotiated settlements. Fears of concessions threaten the sense of security for both sides, making parties less likely to enter into negotiations in the first place. The social-psychological approach can assist in bringing contending parties to the peacemaking process. If each side is able to recognise the fears and perceptions of the other -- thus accepting mutual legitimacy -- negotiations can create positive change. Third-party peacemakers can also support the process by providing reassurance in the form of acknowledgements and confidence-building measures. Outside of negotiations, conflict-resolution workshops are useful for changing negative perceptions, acknowledging history, and addressing destructive divisions in identity. By addressing the fears and perceptions of threats, these peacemaking initiatives can support the transition from conflict to sustainable peace.
Other essays discuss psychological dynamics, frames and framing, and emotions in more detail.
[1] Herbert Kelman, "Israelis and Palestinians: Psychological Prerequisites for Mutual Acceptance" in International Security 3, no. 1 (Summer 1978): 162-186.
[2] Daniel Druckman, "Nationalism, Patriotism, and Group Loyalty: A Social Psychological Perspective" Mershon International Studies Review 38 (1994): 43-68.
[3] I. William Zartman, "Prenegotiation: Phases and Functions," In Getting to the Table: The Process of International Prenegotiation, ed. Janice Gross Stein (USA: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).
Use the following to cite this article:
Seymour, Claudia. "Social Psychological Dimensions of Conflict." Beyond Intractability. Eds. Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, Boulder. Posted: September 2003 <http://www.beyondintractability.org/essay/social_psychological/>.
Sources of Additional, In-depth Information on this Topic
Additional Explanations of the Underlying Concepts:
Online (Web) Sources
Glaser, Tanya. "Anger and Retaliation in Conflict -- Summary." University of Colorado-Boulder: Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado-Boulder: Conflict Research Consortium, 2000.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/articlesummary/10021/.
This summary covers the chapter entitled, "Anger and Retaliation in Conflict," in Part Two of The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice, edited by Morton Deutsch and Peter T. Coleman.
Glaser, Tanya. "Judgmental Biases in Conflict Resolution and How to Overcome Them -- Summary." University of Colorado-Boulder: Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado-Boulder: Conflict Research Consortium, 2000.
Available at: http://www.beyondintractability.org/articlesummary/10302/.
This summary covers the chapter entitled, "Judgmental Biases in Conflict Resolution and How to Overcome Them," in Part Two of The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice, edited by Morton Deutsch and Peter T. Coleman.
Lake, David A. and Donald S. Rothchild. "Ethnic Fears and Global Engagement: The International Spread and Management of Ethnic Conflict." , January 1996
Available at: Click here for more info.
The Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation's (IGCC) project on the International Spread and Management of Ethnic Conflict was formed and designed to address concerns about the escalation and spread of transnational ethnic conflict, particularly in Eastern Europe. This paper attemtps to answer two central questions: 1) How, why, and when do ethnic conflicts spread across national borders?; 2) How can such transnational ethnic conflicts best be managed?
Williams, Dai. "Fear and Violence in Stressed Populations: Stress, Violence and Peace in the Balkans." , April 27, 1999
Available at: http://www.eoslifework.co.uk/gturmap.htm.
Using charts and descriptions, this article discusses the psychological impacts of living in conflict situations.
Jarman, Roswitha. "Healing as Part of Conflict Transformation." CCTS Newsletter, Number 12, Spring 2001 , 2001
Available at: http://www.c-r.org/ccts/ccts12/healing.htm.
This article explores how outsiders coming in to war-torn regions can contribute to healing the personal and interpersonal hurt of individuals and groups and thereby contribute to the process of conflict transformation.
Lindner, Evelin Gerda. "Humiliation: Trauma That Has Been Overlooked: An Analysis Based on Fieldwork in Germany, Rwanda / Burundi, and Somalia." Traumatology , March 2001
Available at: http://www.fsu.edu/%7Etrauma/v7/Humiliation.pdf.
This article explores what differentiates trauma from humiliation. It is argued that trauma may occur without humiliation, but that humiliation may be a core agent of trauma. Moreover, the paper suggests that the significance of humiliation in traumatic experiences has long been overlooked by researchers and practitioners.
Yagcioglu, Dimostenis. "Psychological Explanations of Conflicts Between Ethnocultural Minorities and Majorities: An Overview." , 1996
Available at: http://www.geocities.com/Athens/8945/sycho.html.
This article outlines three psychological theories that were employed most extensively to explain ethnocultural majority-minority conflicts. After a critical evaluation through which the power and weaknesses of each of the three approaches are identified, the article examines the insights offered by cognitive psychological approaches to minority-majority conflicts, presents several conflict resolution practices and suggestions that are derived from all four theories, and concludes by emphasizing that any psychological approach should be used in conjunction with approaches from other disciplines, in multidisciplinary efforts to analyze and handle such conflicts.
Social Psychological Aspects of Peacebuilding.
Available at: Click here for more info.
This page presents a general discussion of the importance of examining social psychological impacts of conflict on individuals and society. It is argued that if psychology drives the attitudes and behaviors of individuals and their collectivities, then emphasis must be placed on understanding the psychology of conflict and its consequences. This page includes discussions of identity, perceptions, and trauma and healing.
Offline (Print) Sources
Lederach, John Paul. Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, December 1997.
Marrying wisdom, insight, and passion, Lederach explains
why we need to move beyond "traditional" diplomacy, which often emphasizes top-level leaders and short-term objectives,
toward a holistic approach that stresses the multiplicity of
peacemakers, long-term perspectives, and the need to create an infrastructure that empowers resources within a society and maximizes contributions from outside. Click here for more info.
Brockner, Joel and Jeffrey Z. Rubin. Entrapment in Escalating Conflicts. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1985.
This work is a social-psychological investigation into the phenomena of entrapment. The authors attempt to synthesize findings from a number of studies into a general account of entrapment. Entrapment in Escalating Conflicts will be of interest to those who seek a better theoretical understanding of the factors and processes which produce entrapment, and promote conflict escalation. This work is divided into eleven chapters, with subject and author indices.
Click here for more info.
Ward, Andrew and Lee Ross. "Naive Realism in Everyday Life: Implications for Social Conflict and Misunderstanding." In Values and Knowledge. Edited by Reed, Edward, Elliot Turiel and Terrance Brown, eds. Lawrence Erlbaum Association, February 1997.
This paper examines the impacts of subjective interpretation and the limits of social perception on social conflict. The basic argument is that people are generally naive in their belief that their personal judgement of a situation or another person, is accurate and would be agreeable to others. It follows then that this trait tends to result in misunderstandings and social conflict. Click here for more info.
Druckman, Daniel. "Nationalism, Patriotism, and Group Loyalty: A Social Psychological Perspective." Mershon International Studies Review 38, 1994.
Zartman, I. William. "Prenegotiation: Phases and Functions." In Getting to the Table: The Process of International Prenegotiation. Edited by Stein, Janice Gross, ed. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.
Lewin, Gertrud Weiss, ed. Resolving Social Conflicts. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1948.
Resolving Social Conflicts is a collection of early essays exploring the relationship between individuals, groups, and the process of conflict, from a social psychological perspective. Click here for more info.
Kelman, Herbert C. "Social-Psychological Dimensions of International Conflict." In Peacemaking in International Conflicts: Methods and Techniques. Edited by Zartman, I. William and J. Lewis Rasmussen, eds. Herndon, VA: USIP Press, August 1, 1997.
This chapter offers a social-psychological perspective on the analysis and resolution of internaional conflict. It is based in social-psychological theory and research and is argued to offer a very different take than more traditional, structural or strategic approaches to analyzing international conflict. Although it may reveal aspects that are not revealed by other approaches, the social-psychological perspective is meant to complement, not replace other approaches.
Feld, Werner J. and Gavin Boyd, eds. Social-Psychological Factors in Regional Politics. New York: Pergamon Press, 1980.
Fisher, Ronald J. "Social-Psychological Processes in Interactive Conflict Analysis and Reconciliation." In Conflict Resolution: Dynamics, Process and Structure. Edited by Jeong, Ho-Won, ed. Brookfield, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 1999.
This chapter outlines the social-psychological premise and the author's vision of Interactive Conflict Resolution (ICR), which is a method of problem-solving third party intervention. The ultimate goal of ICR is complete reconciliation of the conflicting parties, with all of their basic human needs and concerns addressed.
Pruitt, Dean G., Jeffrey Z. Rubin and Sung Hee Kim. Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement, 2nd Edition. New York: McGraw Hill College Division, January 1, 1994.
This work explores the dynamics of conflict escalation, focusing on tactical considerations of conflict strategies and their potential outcomes. Click here for more info.
Coser, Lewis A. The Functions of Social Conflict. New York: Free Press, 1964.
This is a theoretical work focusing on the social-psychological dimensions of social conflict. The author discusses a variety of issues related to group identity.
Hopmann, P. Terrance. The Negotiation Process and the Resolution of International Conflicts, Reprint Edition. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.
This work argues that diplomacy will increasingly replace military action as a means for resolving conflicts in the post-Cold War era. The author reviews a vast array of literature on the subject and presents a framework for abalyzing the many dimensions of international negotiations. At their core, negotiation and diplomacy are psychological exercises.
Deutsch, Morton. The Resolution of Conflict: Constructive and Destructive Processes. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973.
A classic in the field of the social-psychology of conflict, this work provides a set of theoretical essays and research papers that deal with the nature of conflict and discuss various strategies for resolving conflict. Throughout the book, Deutsch focuses heavily on the concepts of cooperation, competition, and trust in explicating constructive and destructive conflict resolution processes. Click here for more info.
Fisher, Ronald J. The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict and International Conflict Resolution. New York, NY: Spring-Verlag, January 1990.
The Social Psychology of Inter-group and International Conflict Resolution explores the "causation, escalation, de-escalation, and resolution" of inter-group conflicts from the perspective of social-psychology. Click here for more info.
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Examples Illustrating this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Allred, Keith G. "Anger and Retaliation in Conflict: The Role of Attribution." In The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. Edited by Deutsch, Morton and Peter T. Coleman, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000.
Allred looks at the role of attribution in the conflict/anger cycle, pointing out that the way in which we see others affects our tendency to feel anger. By understanding the process of attribution (or what intentions and feelings we attribute to others) we can take steps towards overcoming our anger.
Fitzduff, Mari. Beyond Violence: Conflict Resolution Processes in Northern Ireland. Tokyo, Japan: United Nations University Press, 2002.
In this book, author Mari Fitzduff discusses the various conflict resolution processes that helped de-escalate the conflict in Northern Ireland. This work provides on outline of the conflict itself as well as outlining conflict initiatives in the fields of equality, diversity, security work, and political and community dialogue. While emphasizing the complexity of resolving a conflict such as that in Northern Ireland, the nature of the resolution processes employed highlights the importance of addressing social-psychological aspects of the conflict. Click here for more info.
Kelman, Herbert C. "Israelis and Palestinians: Psychological Prerequisites for Mutual Acceptance." International Security 3:1, 1978.
Chaiken, Shelly L. "Persuasion in Negotiations and Conflict Situations." In The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. Edited by Deutsch, M. and Peter T. Coleman, eds. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 2000.
This chapter focuses on the aspects of persuasion and attitude change in negotiation, bargaining, and conflict resolution.
Coleman, Peter T. "Power and Conflict." In The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice,. Edited by Deutsch, Morton and Peter T. Coleman, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000.
This chapter aims to improve understanding of the relationship between power and conflict. The author discusses various conceptions and typologies of power and offers a working definition of power. Coleman then discusses how certain personal and situational factors affect peoples' responses to power in social relations. Lastly, he considers how those ideas are relevant to conflict resolution, describing the tendencies and strategies used by members of groups with varying degrees of power when they are faced with conflict.
Silove, Derrick, Solvig Ekblad and Richard Mollica. "The Rights of the Severely Mentally Ill in Post-conflict Societies." The Lancet 355, April 29, 2000.
Lewicki, Roy J. and Carolyn Wiethoff. "Trust, Trust Development and Trust Repair." In The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. Edited by Deutsch, Morton and Peter T. Coleman, eds. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 2000.
This chapter integrates prior theoretical work on trust development with the multidimensional view of trust, which posits that trust and distrust can coexist within relationships. A series of implications for relationship management are discussed.
Long, William J. and Peter Brecke. War and Reconciliation: Reason and Emotion in Conflict Resolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, January 17, 2003.
This work offers a systematic examination of the impact of reconciliation on restoring and maintaining peace following civil and international conflicts. The book presents eleven comparative case studies of civil war and eight of international conflict. Based on these cases, the authors offer an interesting social-psychological explanation for when and why reconciliation restores social order.
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Audiovisual Materials on this Topic:
Offline (Print) Sources
Ethnic Notions. Directed and/or Produced by: Riggs, Marlon. California Newsreel. 1987.
This documentary film brings to light the social and psychological effects that decades of dehumanizing stereotypes have had US minority populations. Click here for more info.
First Kill. Directed and/or Produced by: Schrijber, Coco. First Run Icarus Films. 2001.
This film explores the psychological and emotional effects of war on humans. More specifically, it interviews veterans in its efforts to understand the seductive power of war, and the complexity of emotions that war and killing bring to those involved. Click here for more info.
Frantz Fanon: Black Skin, White Mask . Directed and/or Produced by: Julien, Issac. California Newsreel. 1996.
This is a film biography of Frantz Fanon. Fanon's two major works, Black Skin, White Masks and The Wretched of the Earth, were pioneering studies of the psychological impact of racism on both colonized and colonizer. Click here for more info.
No More Hiroshima! . Directed and/or Produced by: Duckworth, Martin. First Run Icarus Films. 1984.
This film follows two Hiroshima survivors in their quest to promote peace. Click here for more info.
Race - The Power of an Illusion . Directed and/or Produced by: Adelman, Larry. California Newsreel. 2003.
This four part series destroys the myth of race. It shows that race has no biological basis, rather that it only has societal consequences. The article exposes the social psychological underpinnings of the concept of race and how it contributes to socially constructed inequality and conflict. Click here for more info.
Scars of Memory / Cicatriz de la Memoria . Directed and/or Produced by: Gould, Jeffrey and Carlos Henriquez Consalvi. First Run Icarus Films. 2002.
This film documents the testimonies of numerous Salvadorians who survived the 1932 brutal mass murder of thousands of peasant dissenters. Click here for more info.
The Bombing . Directed and/or Produced by: Bitton, Simone. First Run Icarus Films. 1999.
In its quest to understand and address the issue of suicide bombings, this film through the use of interviews with both the suicide bombers' families and the victims' families, hunts for the motivates that propel individuals to engage in this type of violence. Click here for more info.
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